Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 4 Types of Experiments?
A
Lab
Field
Natural
Quasi
2
Q
What is a Lab Experiment?
A
An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment where the IV is manipulated by the researcher and the effect on the DV is measured
3
Q
What is a Field Experiment?
A
An experiment carried out in a natural environment where the IV is manipulated and the researcher observes the effect it has on the DV
4
Q
What is a Natural Experiment?
A
An experiment carried out in a natural environment where the IV is not directly manipulated and is occurring naturally
5
Q
What is a Quasi Experiment?
A
An experiment that isn’t quite an experiment because the IV is not manipulated and is based on a pre-existing difference between people
6
Q
What are the 6 Types of Observations?
A
Natural
Controlled
Overt
Covert
Participant
Non-Participant
7
Q
What is a Natural Observation?
A
Behaviour is observed in its natural setting where everything has been left as it is
8
Q
What is a Controlled Observation?
A
Behaviour is observed in an environment where the variables are controlled by the researcher
9
Q
What is a Covert Observation?
A
Behaviour is observed and recorded without consent from the participants and they are unaware they are being observed
10
Q
What is an Overt Observation?
A
Behaviour is observed where the participants know they are being observed
11
Q
What is a Participant Observation?
A
Where the observer becomes part of the group they are studying
12
Q
What are the 3 Self Report Methods
A
Questionnaires
Structured Interviews
Unstructured Interviews
13
Q
What is a Questionnaire?
A
A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences
14
Q
What are the 5 Strengths of a Questionnaire?
A
- Cost efficient
- Gather large amounts of data quickly
- Can be completed without researcher being present
- Data is straightforward to analyse
- Comparisons can be easily made
15
Q
What are the 5 Weaknesses of a Questionnaire?
A
- Responses may not be truthful/valid
- Social desirability bias
- Response bias
- Acquiescence bias
- Low response rate
16
Q
What is a Structured Interview?
A
Any interview where the questions are decided in advance
17
Q
What are the 3 Strengths of a Structured Interview?
A
- Easy to replicate
- Reduces differences between interviews
- Reduces depth/validity
18
Q
What are the 2 Weaknesses of a Structured Interview?
A
- Interviewer cannot deviate from the topic or explain their questions
- Limits richness of data collected as well
19
Q
What is an Unstructured Interview?
A
The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions
20
Q
What are the 3 Strengths of an Unstructured Interview?
A
- More flexibility
- Gain more insight into worldview of interviewee
- May get unexpected information
21
Q
What are the 3 Weaknesses of an Unstructured Interviews?
A
- Interview bias
- Not straightforward to analyse data
- Social desirability bias
22
Q
What is a Content Analysis?
A
Systematically summarising and describing any form of content - written, spoken or visual
23
Q
What are the Two Things Involved in a Content Analysis?
A
- Drawing up coding categories and counting how often these categories occur
- Converts qualitative data into quantitative
24
Q
What are the 6 Steps involved in a Content Analysis?
A
- Decide what your research question is
- Decide what you are going to analyse and how you will collect this
- Develop a list of coding categories
- Pilot it and make any changes needed
- Count the number of times the categories occur
- Check the reliability of the content analysis by correlating one researcher’s scores with another’s
25
4 Evaluation Points of Content Analysis
- Can get around many of the ethical issues usually associated with research
- Suffers from subjectivity
- Observer bias
- Can be flexible - can produce both qualitative and quantitative data
26
Definition of Directional Hypothesis
Where the researcher makes clear what kind if difference they expect to happen
27
Definition of Non-Directional Hypothesis
Where the researcher state that they expect a difference but the exact difference is not specified
28
When Should You Use a Directional Hypothesis?
Choose this if previous research has suggested a particular outcome
29
When Should You Use a Non-Directional Hypothesis?
Choose this if no previous research has been done, or previous research has proved inconclusive
30
Definition of Pilot Study
A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted
31
5 Aims of a Pilot Study
- Run with a small amount of participants
- Test out any research methods
- Save time and money
- Done before main study
- Do not include the results of the pilot study in main research
32
What is a Self Report Technique?
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviors and experiences related to a given topic
33
What is an Open Quesiton?
Questions with no fixed answer/response and respondents can answer in any way they wish
34
2 Strengths of an Open Question
- Get more information
- Produces qualitative data - more depth and detail
35
2 Weakness of an Open Question
- People can miss them out as they can't be bothered to answer them
- Harder to analyse
36
What is a Closed Question?
Questions with a fixed answer/ the choice of response is determined by the question setter
37
2 Strengths of a Closed Question
- Quick and easy to answer
- Quantitive data is easier to analyse
38
2 Weakness of a Closed Question
- Not detailed or in depth answers
- Don't find the meaning behind the answer
39
What is a Semi-Structured Interview?
There is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow up questions when they feel it is appropriate
40
What is an Aim?
A general statement that the researcher intends to investigate
41
What is a Hypothesis?
A detailed statement which is clear, precise and testable that states the relationship between variables being tested
42
What is a Null Hypothesis?
States that there will be no relationship between the 2 variables
43
What is a Meta-Analysis?
A particular form of research method that uses secondary data from a large number of studies which have involved the same research question and method are combined
44
What is Quantitative Data?
Data that focuses on numbers and frequencies which can be counted
45
What is Qualitative Data?
Data that describes meaning and experiences which is expressed in words
46
What is Primary Data?
Information that has been obtained first hand by the researcher
47
What is Secondary Data?
Information that has already been collected by previous researchers
48
Informed Consent - 2 Points
- Participants should be told what they are letting themselves in for
- If under 16 consent must be obtained from their parents.
49
What is Deception?
Information is withheld from participants and they are misled about the purpose of the study and what will happen during it.
50
Right to Withdraw - 2 Point
- Participants should be told this at the start of the research
- No attempt should be made to encourage them to remain.
51
What is Protection from Harm?
Participants should not be put through anything they wouldn't normally be expected to
52
What is Competence?
Psychologists must not attempt to carry out research unless they are qualified to do so
53
What is a Debrief?
Researchers should discuss the aims of the research with the p.ps making sure they know how they've contributed to meeting the aims
54
Ethical Issues - 6 Points
- Informed consent
- Deception
- Right to withdraw
- Protection from harm
- Competence
- Debrief
55
What is a Variable?
Any thing that can vary or change with in an investigation
56
What is an Independent Variable?
An aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally so the effect on the DV can be measured
57
What is a Dependent Variable?
The variable that is measured by the researcher, and is caused by change in the IV
58
What is Operationalising Variables?
The process of devising a way of measuring a variable. It is a clear statement of what the variable is
59
4 Strengths of Lab Experiments
- Can establish cause and effect
- Few if any extraneous variables
- Easy to replicate
- High internal validity
60
4 Weaknesses of Lab Experiments
- Lacks ecological / external validity
- Demand characteristics can occur
- Behaviour in a lab is often different
- Experimenter effects can occur
61
4 Strengths of Field Experiments
- More ecologically/externally valid
- Fewer demand characteristics
- Replication can occur to some extent
- Fewer experimenter effects
62
4 Weaknesses of Field Experiments
- Chance of extraneous variables
- More time consuming
- Ethical issues (informed consent)
- Need a skilled researcher
63
4 Strengths of Natural Experiments
- No demand characteristics
- No researcher effects
- Fewer ethical issues
- Allows P.ps who wouldn't normally be tested to take part
64
4 Weakness of Natural Experiments
- Lack of control (extraneous variables)
- Short term behaviour may be displayed
- No random allocation can create confounding variables
- Harder to replicate
65
What are Extraneous Variables?
Any variable apart from the IV which can effect the DV if not controlled, but can be controlled by the researcher
66
What are Confounding Variables?
A variable apart from the IV which can effect the DV, but cannot be controlled by the researcher
67
What is the Baseline Measure?
Result established from control condition when no manipulation of IV occurs and allows comparisons to be made.
68
What is Random Allocation?
People are chosen randomly and have an equal chance of being selected
69
What is Ecological Validity?
How methods can be applied to real life settings
70
What is External Validity?
How valid results are outside of a research setting
71
What are Demand Characteristics?
Any cue from the researcher or research situation that can be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation leading them to changing their behaviour
72
What are Experimenter Effects?
Where the experimenter changes a persons views usually sub-consciously through body language
73
What are Experimental Methods?
The type of experiment you do
74
What are Experimental Designs?
How you carry the experiment out
75
What is an Independent Groups Design?
Each participant either does the control condition or the experimental condition
76
4 Strengths of an Independent Groups Design
- Reduces demand characteristics
- Quick to administer
- Could be used for all tests
- Prevents order effects
77
3 Weaknesses of an Independent Groups Design
- Individual differences can occur
- Lots of Participants are required
- More time consuming
78
What is a Repeated Measures Design?
Each participant does the control condition and the experimental condition
79
3 Strengths of a Repeated Measures Design
- Quick to administer
- No individual differences
- Fewer participants are required
80
3 Weaknesses of a Repeated Measures Design
- High possibility of demand characteristics
- Order effects can occur
- Can't be used for all tests
81
What is a Matched Pairs Design?
Participants are matched on key characteristics, and one participant does the control condition, whilst the other does the experimental condition.
82
3 Strengths of a Matched Pairs Design
- Less possibility of demand characteristics
- Prevents order effects
- No individual differences
83
5 Weaknesses of a Matched Pairs Design
- Time consuming
- Lots of participants are required
- Hard to match participants on all variables
- Can't be used for all tests
- Not very economical
84
What is Counterbalancing?
An attempt to control order effects in a repeated measures design
85
What are Order Effects?
A confounding variable arising from the order which participants take place in the different conditions
86
2 Strengths of Naturalistic Observations
- High external validity
- Easy to apply in everyday life
87
2 Weaknesses of Naturalistic Observations
- Hard to replicate
- Extraneous variables can occur
88
2 Strengths of Controlled Observations
- Easy to replicate
- Less extraneous variables
89
Weakness of Controlled Observations
Findings can't be applied to all real life settings
90
Strength of Participant Observations
Experience the same situation which gives insight which increases validity
91
Weakness of Participant Observations
Can get too attached to people and lose objectivity
92
Strength of Non-Participant Observations
Allows researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from participants
93
Weakness of Non-Participant Observations
Researcher has less insight
94
2 Strengths of Covert Observations
- No participant reactivity
- Natural behaviour - increases validity
95
Weakness of Covert Observations
Ethics - people might not want to be observed
96
Strength of Overt Observations
More ethically acceptable (have consent)
97
Weakness of Overt Observations
Can be influenced as they know they're being watched
98
What is Event Sampling?
Counting the time a particular behaviour occurs in a group/individual
99
What is Time Sampling?
Recording behaviour with a pre established time frame
100
What is Inter-Observer Reliability?
Two or more researchers observe the same behaviour at the same time then compare and amend results to create correlations
101
What is the Target Population?
The entire group a researcher is interested in
102
Sampling Bias - 2 Points
- When certain groups are over or under represented with in the sample selected
- It limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population
103
Generalisation - 2 Points
- The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular experiment can be broadly applied to the population
- This is possible if the sample of people is representative of the population
104
What is Inter-Rater Reliability?
Correlating the judgements of two or more ratings of behaviour when using a rating scale
105
What is a Peer Review?
The assessment of work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research set for publication is high quality
106
3 Aims of a Peer Review
- To allocate funding properly and appropriately
- To validate the quality of research
- To suggest amendments and improvements
107
Strength of a Peer Review
Helps to establish validity and accuracy of research because more than one person will carry out the experiment therefore allowing the data to be correlated
108
2 Weaknesses of a Peer Review
- The anonymity could lead to them being overcritical
- Publication bias can occur where only positive results or attention grabbing results are published
109
What is Opportunity Sampling?
A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study
110
What is Random Sampling?
A sample of participants produced by using a random technique so that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
111
What is Volunteer Sampling?
A sample of participants produced by a sampling technique that relies solely on inviting people to take part
112
What is Systematic Sampling?
A method of obtaining a representative sample e.g. by selecting every 5th or 7th person
113
What is Stratified Sampling?
A sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the population in order to obtain a representative sample
114
5 Sampling Techniques
- Opportunity
- Random
- Systematic
- Volunteer
- Stratified
115
What is a Correlation?
Where a researcher investigates an association between two variables call co-variables
116
What is a Positive Correlation?
As one variable increase the other variable increases
117
What is a Negative Correlation?
As one variable increase the other variable decreases
118
What is a Zero Correlation?
When there is no relationship between the co-variables
119
What are Measures of Central Tendency?
The general term for any measure of the average value in the set of data
120
What are Measures of Dispersion?
The general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores
121
What is the Mean?
The arithmetic average
122
2 Strengths of the Mean
- Most sensitive of the measures of central tendency as it includes all data
- More representative
123
Weakness of the Mean
Easily distorted with extreme values therefore won't be representative
124
What is the Median?
The central value in a set of data when it is ordered from lowest to highest value
125
2 Strengths of the Median
- Extreme scores don't have an effect
- Easy to calculate
126
Weakness of the Median
Not very sensitive as not all scores are included
127
What is the Mode?
The value that appears most frequently in a set of data
128
2 Strengths of the Mode
- Very easy to calculate
- For data in categories it's the only appropriate measure
129
2 Weaknesses of the Mode
- Crude measure as the mean and mode can be very different
- Not representative
130
What are the 3 Measures of Central Tendency?
- Mean
- Median
- Mode
131
When to Use the Mean?
No extreme values
132
When to Use the Median?
Extreme values
133
When to Use the Mode?
Only if data is in categories
134
What is the Range?
Calculation of the dispersion in a set of scores
135
How do you work out the Range?
Worked out by minusing the lowest value from the highest value and adding one as a mathematical correction.
136
Strength of the Range
Easy to calculate
137
2 Weaknesses of the Range
- Only uses the 2 most extreme scores which may be unrepresentative of all the data
- May not give a fair representation of the general spread of scores
138
What is the Standard Deviation?
How far scores deviate from the mean
139
Strength of the Standard Deviation
More precise than the range as it includes all values with in the final calculation
140
Weakness of the Standard Deviation
Can be easily distorted by an extreme value
141
What are the 2 Measures of Dispersion?
- Range
- Standard Deviation
142
4 Types of Graphs
- Bar chart
- Scattergram
- Histogram
- Line graph
143
Bar Charts - 2 Points
- Used when data is divided into categories (discrete data)
- The bars are separated to show different categories
144
Scattergrams - 2 Points
- They show associations between co-variables not differences
- Either of the variables can be placed on the X/Y axis
145
Histograms - 2 Points
- Used when data is continuous
- The bars touch each other
146
Line Graphs - 3 Points
- Represent continuous data
- Each point is connected by a line
- Usually the IV is plotted on the X axis and the DV is plotted on the Y axis
147
What is Normal Distribution?
There is a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped pattern
148
Normal Distribution - 4 Points
- Its bell shaped
- Its symmetrical
- The mean, median, mode are all in the centre
- The 2 tails never touch the horizontal axis
149
What is a Positively Skewed Distribution?
The long tail is on the positive side of the peak and most of the distribution is centred to the left
150
What is a Positively Skewed Distribution Also Known as?
Right Skewed
151
What is a Negatively Skewed Distribution?
The long tail is on the negative side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right
152
What is a Negatively Skewed Distribution Also Known as?
Left Skewed
153
Skewed Distributions - 2 Points
- When the spread of data is not symmetrical meaning the data clusters to one end
- The mode is located at the highest point, then the median and finally the mean.
154
Statistical Testing - 2 Points
- We need to know if the results are significant
- The difference may be due to chance or coincidence
155
What is the Sign Test?
Involves counting up the number of positive snd negative signs
156
What are the 3 Things We Need to Use the Sign Test?
- Be looking for differences not associations
- Have used a repeated measures design
- Have data which is organised into categories (nominal)
157
Accepted Level of Probability - 2 Points
- In psychology the accepted level is 0.05 / 5%
- Sometime researchers need more confidence so have a more stringent significance level of 0.01 / 1%
158
Calculated Value - 2 Points
- The number the researcher is left with after the statistical test has been calculated
- It is compared to the critical value to see whether the results are significant.
159
What are the 3 Things you Need to Use the Critical Values Table?
- Desired significance level (usually 0.05)
- The number (N) of participants
- Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional
160
What are Significant Results?
The results are significant if the calculated value is equal to or lower than the critical value
161
Sign Test - 5 Steps
- Convert data into nominal data by subtracting one condition away from the other. If the number is negative you put a - sign and if it is positive you put a + sign in the sign of difference column
- Add up the number of + & - signs (if p.ps got the same score in both conditions their data is ignored)
- Take the less frequent sign and call this 'S' which id the calculated value
- Compare the calculated value to the critical value (the calculated value needs to be equal to or less than the critical value).
- Write up the sign test
162
What are the 8 Statistical Tests?
- Mann-Whitney
- Related T - Test
- Unrelated T - Test
- Sign Test
- Wilcoxon
- Chi Squared
- Spearman's Rank
- Pearson's
163
What do you need for a Mann-Whitney Test? - 3 Points
- Study of Difference
- Independent Groups
- Ordinal Data
164
What do you need for a Related T - Test? - 3 Points
- Study of Difference
- Repeated Measures
- Interval Data
165
What do you need for an Unrelated T - Test? - 3 Points
- Study of Difference
- Independent Groups
- Interval Data
166
What do you need for a Sign Test? - 3 Points
- Study of Difference
- Repeated Measures
- Nominal Data
167
What do you need for a Wilcoxon Test? - 3 Points
- Study of Difference
- Repeated Measures
- Ordinal Data
167
What do you need for a Spearman's Rank Test? - 2 Points
- Study of Correlation
- Ordinal Data
168
What do you need for a Pearson's Test? - 2 Points
- Study of Correlation
- Interval Data
169
What do you need for a Chi Squared Test? - 2 Points
- Study of Difference or Correlation
- Nominal Data
170
3 Ways of Classifying Quantitative Data
- Nominal
- Ordinal
- Interval
171
Nominal Data - 3 Points
- Used when categorising something
- Name categories are established by the research
- Each 'item' only appears in one category
172
Ordinal Data - 2 Points
- Data is ranked so that it is possible to see the order of scores in relation to one another
- Not an equal interval between each unit
173
Interval Data - 3 Points
- Gives the rank order of scores and details the precise interval between scores
- Universally accepted levels of measurement
- Example - temperature, finishing time in a race, weight
174
7 Sections of a Scientific Report
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Method
- Results
- Discussion
- References/ Bibliography
- Appendices
175
Abstract Section of a Scientific Report - 2 Points
- A brief summary of the report
- Covers the aims, hypotheses, methods, procedures, results and the conclusions
176
Introduction Section of a Scientific Report - 4 Points
- Topic area and background to the study
- Made up of the relevant theories and past studies/research relevant to the research question
- Introduce the study and explain the ideas behind it
- Specific research hypotheses
177
Method Section of a Scientific Report - 3 Points
- Describe how the study was conducted
- Should have enough information to allow for replication
- Include the design, participants, apparatus, resources, materials, pilot study, and procedure
178
Results Section of a Scientific Report - 3 Points
- Report the findings of the study clearly and accurately
- May be in words or visual interpretations
- Includes the results of inferential analyses to determine whether the results are significant
179
Discussion Section of a Scientific Report - 4 Points
- Begins with a summary of the findings of the results
- Offer explanations for the behaviours observed
- Consider implications of the research
- Make suggestions for further research
180
References/Bibliography Section of a Scientific Report
Complete details of all research documents, journals, internet resources, and books that were mentioned and used for additional background research
181
Appendices Section of a Scientific Report
Comprised of a copy of all resources and materials used within the study, raw data, and statistical calculations
