Attachment Flashcards
1
Q
Definition of Attachment
A
a close two way emotional bond between two individuals in which each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security
2
Q
Definition of Reciprocity
A
In a caregiver-infant interaction, each party responds to the other’s signals to sustain interaction
3
Q
Alert Phases - 2 Points
A
- Babies signal when they are ready for an interaction
- Mothers usually pick up on these 2/3 of the time, but this varies due to skills and stress
4
Q
Are Babies Active or Passive in Reciprocity?
A
Traditionally, babies were seen to have a passive role, but it is now understood that both caregiver and infant can initiate these interactions.
5
Q
What does Brazelton et al say about Reciprocity?
A
Described this interaction as a ‘dance’, as each partner responds to another’s moves
6
Q
Definition of Proximity
A
People try to stay psychically close to those they are attached to
7
Q
Definition of Separation Distress
A
People are stressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence
8
Q
Definition of Secure-Base Behaviour
A
When independent from attachment figure, we still make regular contact with them.
9
Q
Definition of Interactional Synchrony
A
Mother and infant interact in a way where their emotions mirror one another
10
Q
Meltzoff and Moore Study - 2 Points
A
- Infants as young as 2 weeks old observed adults displaying one of three facial expressions or distinctive gestures
- Found a significant association between the expression or gesture of the adult and the action of the baby
11
Q
Isabella et al Study - 2 Points
A
- Assessed the degree of synchrony in 30 mothers and infants as well as the quality of their attachment
- Found high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachment
12
Q
Caregiver-Infant Interactions A03 - Difficulty Knowing What is Happening When Observing Infants
A
What is being observed is only small hand movements and a subtle changes in expression as young babies lack co-ordination and much of their body is immobile.
13
Q
Caregiver-Infant Interactions A03 - Controlled Observations Have Strengths - 2 Points
A
- Observations of caregiver-infant interactions are usually well-controlled procedures, which are filmed from multiple angles in a lab setting, which allows them to be analysed later (inter-observer reliability).
- Babies are also unaffected by demand characteristics
14
Q
Caregiver-Infant Interactions A03 - Observations Do Not Tell Us About Developmental Importance - 2 Points
A
- Although these behaviours can be observed, they do not tell us their purpose from observation alone, so we do not know how important they are for development.
- However, there is some research to suggest that they are helpful in stress responses, empathy, language and moral development
15
Q
Caregiver-infant Interactions A03 - Research Implications for Working Mothers are Socially Sensitive But also Have Practical Value - 2 Points
A
- Research into mother-infant interaction is socially sensitive because it suggests children may be disadvantaged by certain rearing practices.
- However it does have practical value - Crotwell et al found a 10 minute child-parent interaction therapy improved interactional synchrony in 20 low-income mothers and their pre-school children.
16
Q
Role of the Father - Caldera Study - Aim
A
Investigate the relationship between attachment quality with the father and their levels of caregiving
17
Q
Role of the Father - Caldera Study - Method
A
60 mothers and fathers independently described their child, and completed questionnaires about their involvement in and attitudes towards child-rearing and self-esteem.
18
Q
Role of the Father - Caldera Study - Results
A
Found that fathers who engaged in more caretaking activities with their children were more securely attached
19
Q
Role of the Father - Grossman Study - Aim
A
Assessed mothers’ and fathers’ behaviour and its effect on the quality of their children’s attachments during adolescence.
20
Q
Role of the Father - Grossman Study - Method
A
Used a longitudinal study of 44 families comparing the role of fathers’ and mothers’ contributions to their children’s attachment experiences at 6, 10 and 16.
21
Q
Role of the Father - Grossman Study Results - 2 Points
A
- Found that quality of infants attachment to the mother was related to children’s attachment quality during adolescence
- The quality of fathers’ play with infants was related to the quality of adolescent attachment
22
Q
Role of the Father - Grossman Study - Conclusion
A
Suggests fathers have a distinct role which is more to do with play and stimulation than nurture.
23
Q
Role of the Father - Field Study - Aim
A
Investigate the differences between fathers who acted as secondary caregivers to fathers who acted as primary caregivers
24
Q
Role of the Father - Field Study - Method
A
Filmed 4 month old babies in face to face interactions with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers, and primary caregiver fathers.
25
Role of the Father - Field Study - Results
Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants than secondary caregiver fathers
26
Role of the Father - Field Study - Conclusion
Suggests fathers can be a nurturing attachment figure and it is the responsiveness levels of the caregivers, rather than the gender.
27
Role of the Father A03 - Inconsistent Findings on Fathers - 2 Points
- Research into the father's role can be confusing because some psychologists are interested in their role as their primary caregiver and some as the secondary caregiver.
- Those who research on them as primary caregivers tend to find them adopting a 'maternal' role whereas those who research them as secondary caregivers tend to give them a distinct role
28
Role of the Father A03 - Why Aren't Children Without Fathers Different? - 2 Points
- Some studies have found that fathers as secondary attachment figures are important for children's development but others have found that children growing up in single or same-sex parent families do not develop differently from those in a two parent heterosexual household.
- However, may be that fathers adopt this distinct role in heterosexual relationships, but single mothers and lesbian mothers can accommodate this role where necessary.
29
Role of the Father A03 - Bias in Research - 2 Points
- Preconceptions about how fathers do/should behave created by stereotypical accounts/images of parenting roles/behaviour in advertising.
- These stereotypes may cause observer bias.
30
Role of the Father A03 - Real-World Application - 3 Points
- Parents and prospective parents often struggle with decisions like who should take on the primary caregiver role.
- Mothers often feel pressured to stay at home and fathers pressured to invest in in work even if this isn't economically rational.
- Research into the role of the father can alleviate some of this parental anxiety by reassuring parents that fathers are capable of becoming primary attachment figures, and reassuring families without a male figure that this will not affect the child's development.
31
Definition of Stages of Attachment
A sequence of qualitatively different behaviour linked to specific ages. In stages go attachment, some characteristics of the infant's behaviour towards others change as the infant gets older
32
Definition of Qualitative Differences
Refers to each stage and the associated behaviours being different in kind
33
Schaffer and Emerson Study - Aim
To investigate the formation of early attachments i.e when they developed, their emotional intensity, and to whom they were directed.
34
Schaffer and Emerson Study - Method - 5 Points
- 60 babies involved in the study 31 males and 29 female
- All from Glasgow - mostly skilled working class families
- The babies and their mothers were visited at home every month for the first year, then again at 18 months
- The researchers asked the mothers questions about the kids of portent their babies showed in 7 everyday situations to measure the infants' attachment
- These situations included ones to measure separation anxiety and stranger anxiety
35
Definition of Separation Anxiety
A behaviour associated with attachment in which people become distressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence
36
Definition of Stranger Anxiety
A behaviour associated with attachment in which infants show an anxiety response to an unfamiliar adult
37
Schaffer and Emerson Study - Findings - 3 Points
- Between 25 and 32 weeks, about 50% of the babies showed signs of specific attachment.
- By 40 weeks, 80% of the babies had a specific attachment and almost 30% displayed multiple attachment.
- Attachment tended to be towards the caregiver who was most interactive and sensitive to infant signals and facial expressions. This is not necessarily the person they spend the most time with.
38
What are Schaffer and Emerson's 4 Stages of Attachment, In Order?
Asocial Stage
Indiscriminate Attachment
Specific Attachment
Multiple Attachment
39
What is the Time Period for the Asocial Stage?
First few weeks
40
Asocial Stage - 4 Notes
- Not actually asocial, as the baby is recognising and forming bonds with its carers.
- Baby behaves relatively similarly towards humans and non-human objects.
- Babies show some preference towards familiar adults - they are more easily calmed by these people.
- Babies are happier in the presence of other humans.
41
What is the Time Period for Indiscriminate Attachment?
2 - 7 Months
42
Indiscriminate Stage - 5 Notes
- Display more observable social behaviour.
- Show a preference for people rather than inanimate objects.
- Recognise and prefer familiar adults.
- Babies usually accept cuddles and comfort from any adult and do not show separation or stranger anxiety.
- Attachment said to be indiscriminate
43
What is the Time Period for Specific Attachment?
7 + months
44
Specific Attachment - 2 Notes
- Start to display stranger anxiety and separation anxiety when separated from a primary attachment figure
- The primary attachment is not always the person the infant sends the most time with, but is the one who offers the most interaction and responds to the baby's signals most skilfully
45
What is the Time Period for Multiple Attachment?
Shortly after specific attachment
46
Multiple Attachments - 3 Notes
- Extend from primary attachment figure to multiple attachments with other adults they regularly spend time with (secondary attachment)
- In S+E's study, 29% of the children had secondary attachments within a month of forming specific attachment.
- By age 1, the majority of infants had formed multiple attachments
47
Schaffer and Emerson Study A03 - Good External Validity, But Issues with Objectivity - PEC
P - Carried out in families homes and most of the observation was done by parents during ordinary activity then later reported to researcher.
E - There is a very good chance that the participants behaved naturally.
C - However, mothers as observers are less likely to be objective or may misremember.
48
Schaffer and Emerson Study A03 - Longitudinal Study - P
P - Better internal validity than cross-sectional research because there are no participant variables.
49
Definition of Cross-Sectional Research in Attachment
Observe different children at each age
50
Schaffer and Emerson Study A03 - Limited Sample Characteristics - PEE
P - Large volume of data collected for each participant was a strength, though all families came from the same district and social class. The research also took place more than 50 years ago.
E - Child rearing practices vary between cultures and historical contexts so may not generalise well.
E - Multiple attachments from early age in collectivist cultures
51
Definition of Ethnocentric
Judging by the standards of your own culture
52
Schaffer and Emerson Stages A03 - Problems Studying the Asocial Stage - 3 Points
- Babies this young have poor co-ordination and are pretty much immobile.
- There is not much observable behaviour to make judgements on - who observed?
- Even if child's feelings and cognitions are highly social, the evidence is not reliable.
53
Schaffer and Emerson Stages A03 - Conflicting Evidence on Multiple Attachments - 4 Points
- General agreement that children become capable of multiple attachments but conflict regarding when
- For example, Bowlby found babies form an attachment t to a single main carer before forming multiple attachments
- However, there researchers find babies form multiple attachments from the outset (van IJzendorn et al)
- This is particularly in collectivist cultures with multiple caregivers
54
Schaffer and Emerson Stages A03 - Measuring Multiple Attachments - 3 Points
- Issues with how multiple attachments are assessed
- Bowlby said children also have playmates, but they are not attachment figures
- Problem for Schaffer and Emerson's stages as their observation does not allow for the distinction between secondary attachment figures and playmates
55
Schaffer and Emerson Stages A03 - Practical Value - 3 Points
- Practical application to day care
- In asocial and indiscriminate stages, day care should be straightforward as children will likely accept comfort from any skilled adult - day care with an unfamiliar adult can be problematic during specific attachment stage
- Day care can be planned around S and E's stages
56
Definition of Ethology
A branch of research where animal behaviour is studied in a scientific, objective way
57
Lorenz Study - Aim
To investigate the concept of imprinting on geese
58
Lorenz Study - Method - 3 Points
- Randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs.
- Half the eggs hatched with the mother in their natural environment (control group)
- The other half hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz (experimental group)
59
Lorenz Study - Results - 3 Points
- The experimental group followed Lorenz everywhere whereas the control group followed their mother.
- This was referred to as imprinting
- Lorenz identified a critical period in which imprinting must occur, and if it did not occur within this time then chicks did not attach themselves to a mother figure.
60
Lorenz Study - Conclusion
Imprinting is a form of attachment which occurs early on the lifespan of geese.
61
Definition of Imprinting
Bird species that are mobile from birth attach to and follow the first moving object they see
62
Definition of Critical Period
The time frame in which imprinting can occur - this varies depending on the species
63
Lorenz Sexual Imprinting Study - What species imprinted?
Peacock
64
Lorenz Sexual Imprinting Study - What species the peacock imprint on?
Giant tortoise
65
Lorenz Sexual Imprinting Study - What sort of behaviours did the peacocks show towards the tortoise they imprinted on?
Sexual
66
Lorenz Sexual Imprinting Study - What did Lorenz conclude?
The peacock had undergone sexual imprinting
67
Lorenz A03 - Generalising to Humans? - 2 Points
- Mammalian attachment system is different to birds - mammals show more emotional attachment than birds and research suggests that mammal attachments take longer to form but can also be formed later in life (easiest in infancy)
- Lorenz used precocial species whose eyes are open and can walk from birth - they have different biological motivation to infants
68
Lorenz A03 - Research Support - Regolin and Vallortigara - 3 Points
- Chicks exposed to simple shape combinations that moved e.g. triangle with rectangle in front
- Then, shape combinations moved in front of them and they followed the original most closely
- Young animals born with innate mechanism to imprint on moving objects in critical window
69
Lorenz A03 - Lorenz Observations Have Since Been Questioned - 3 Points
- Lorenz's suggested that imprinting has a permanent effect on mating behaviour
- However, Guiton et al found chickens could imprint on washing up gloves but with experience came to prefer mating with other chickens
- Suggests impact of imprinting on mating behaves is not as permanent as Lorenz believed
70
Harlow's Study - Aim
To find out whether baby monkey's prefer a source of food or a source of comfort as an attachment figure
71
Harlow's Study - Method - 2 Points
- Reared 16 baby monkeys with 2 'mothers' - one wire , one cloth
- In one condition, milk was dispensed by wire mother, in another dispensed by cloth mother
72
Harlow's Study - Results - 2 Points
- Baby monkeys spent most of their time clinging to the cloth mother, using the wire one for feeding only
- The cloth surrogate seemed to provide comfort in new situations
73
Harlow's Study - Conclusion
Infant monkeys formed more of an attachment to a figure that provided comfort than one with provided food
74
Harlow and Zimmerman's Study - 2 Points
- When a fearful stimulus was added in the cage, the monkey would cling to the cloth surrogate first before exploring the object regardless of which 'mother' dispensed milk
- If the monkey was in a cage with a wire mother only, they would remain frozen or run wildly around the cage
75
Maternally Deprived Monkeys as Adults - 4 Points
- Wire mother only led to the most dysfunctional long term effects
- Even monkeys with a cloth mother substitute developed strange social behaviours
- These monkeys who went on to be mothers sometimes neglected, attacked, or even killed their offspring
- Mother figure needed to be introduced within 90 days to form attachment or it became impossible and damage became irreversible
76
What Were 3 Strange Social Behaviours that Maternally Deprived Monkeys Developed as Adults?
- More aggressive
- Less sociable
- Unskilled at mating
77
Harlow and the Critical Period
A mother figure had to be introduced to a young monkey within 90 days for an attachment to for
78
Harlow's Study A03 - Theoretical Value - 3 Points
- Informed our understanding of mother-infant attachment
- Attachment is not only a result of being fed by the mother figure but also contact comfort
- Importance of the quality of early relationships for later social development
79
Harlow's Study A03 - Practical Value - 2 Points
- Helped social workers understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse so they can intervene and recent situations (Howe)
- Importance of proper attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoos and breeding programmes in the wild
80
Harlow's Study A03 - Lab Experiment - 2 Points
- Strict control of variables so we are more able to isolate the impact of the independent variable
- Kept in isolation in a laboratory, the study lacked ecological validity
81
Harlow's Study A03 - Generalisability to Humans
Issues with generalising the behaviour to human behaviour
82
Definition of Classical Conditioning
The association of two stimuli so that we start to respond to one in the same way we naturally respond to the other
83
The Classical Conditioning Account of Attachment - Before
Food (UCS) -> Pleasure (UCR)
Caregiver (NS) -> X
84
The Classical Conditioning Account of Attachment - During
Food (UCS) + Caregiver (NS) -> Pleasure (UCR)
85
The Classical Conditioning Account of Attachment - After
Caregiver (CS) -> Pleasure (CR)
86
Definition of Operant Conditioning
Learning to repeat a behaviour or not depending in its consequences
87
Operant Conditioning - 5 Points
- Can explain crying for comfort
- Crying leads to a response from a caregiver
- If this is correct, the crying is reinforced so the infant directs crying for comfort towards caregiver who responds with social suppresser behaviour
- Reinforcement is a two-way process
- The caregiver is also negatively reinforced because the crying stops
88
Attachment as a Secondary Drive - What Type of Drive is Hunger?
Primary drive - innate and biological motivator
89
Attachment as a Secondary Drive - What Does Hunger Motivate Us to do?
Eat in order to reduce hunger drive
90
Attachment as a Secondary Drive - What Does Sears Say Happens to Caregivers Because They Provided Food?
They become generalised, meaning attachment is s secondary drive
91
Why is Attachment a Secondary Drive?
It is geared buy associate between the caregiver and the satisfaction of a primary drive
92
Learning Theory A03 - Counter-Evidence from Animals - 2 Points
Lorenz - Geese Imprinted before they were fed
Harlow - Attached to soft surrogate mother over attaching to wire surrogate who dispensed milk
93
Learning Theory A03 - Counter Evidence from Humans
Schaffer and Emerson found many babies developed a primary attachment to their biological mother despite other careers doing most of the feeding.
94
Learning Theory A03 - Ignores Other Factors - 3 Points
- Research suggests that attachment quality is related to other factors (e.g reciprocity and interactional synchrony)
- Primary attachments to to be formed to the person who responds to the infant's signals the most
- If learning theory is correct, there would be no purpose for these complex interactions an no relationship between them and attachment quality
95
Learning Theory A03 - Some Conditioning Could Still be involved - 4 Points
- Can be fairly certain learning theory is not a good explanation
- But some conditioning is still like to be involved
- Plausible associations are made between the primary caregiver and provision of comfort and social interaction -> attachment
- However, classical and operant conditioning see babies as passive, but research shows they have an active role
96
Learning Theory A03 - A Newer Learning Theory Explanation - 3 Points
- Hay and Vespa - newer explanation for infant-caregiver attachment based on SLT
- Parents teach children to love them by modelling attachment behaviour
- Has the added advantage that its based around a 2 way interaction between adults and infants - fits reciprocity research better.
97
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - Background - 4 Points
- Rejected learning theory as an explanation for attachment
- Bowlby took inspiration from the work of Lorenz and Harlow to develop an evolutionary explanation
- He suggested attachment is an innate system that gives a survival advantage
- Though imprinting evolved as a means to stay protected from predators, it is now to protect from modern dangers
97
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - The Concept of Monotropy
- The theory is closed as mono tropic because a lot of empathises is placed on the child's attachment to a particular caregiver
- This attachment is said to be different to any other attachments and of higher importance
- Bowbly called this person 'mother' but stressed that it does not need to be the biological mother
- Now more commonly referred to as primary attachment figure
98
Bowlby's Law of Continuity
The more constant and predictable a child's care, the better the quality of their attachment
99
Bowlby's Law of Accumulated Separation
The effects of every separation ever from the mother add up
100
What Does Bowlby Say About Why He Does Not Accept Learning Theory?
"Were it true, an infant of a year or two should take readily to whomever feeds him and this is clearly not the case"
101
What Does Bowbly Say About The Law of Accumulated Separation?
"The safest does is zero"
102
What are Social Releasers?
A set of innate 'cute' behaviours babies are born with to encourage attention from adults
103
What is the Purpose of Social Releasers?
Purpose is to activate adult social interaction, causing them to attach to, and feel love for, the baby.
104
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - Definition of the Critical Period
A phase in which the infant attachment system is most sensitive and active
105
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - When is the Critical Period?
6 months to 2 years
106
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - When is the Critical Period Most Sensitive?
Maximal sensitivity at 6 months
107
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - What Did Bowlby Refer to the Critical Period as?
The sensitive period
108
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - What Happens if an Attachment is Not Formed Within this Time Frame?
If an attachment is not formed in the critical period, a child will find it much harder to form one later.
109
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - Definition of Internal Working Models
The mental representation we all carry of our attachment to our primary attachment figure. They affect our future relationships because they carry our perceptions of what relationships are like.
110
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - How Do IWMs Affect Children in Future Relationships? - 4 Points
- A child whose first experience of a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver will tend to form an expectation that all relationships are as loving and reliable
- They will bring these qualities to future relationship
- A child whose first relationship involves poor treatment will tend to form further poor relationships in which they expect such treatment from others
- Could treat others in that way
111
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory - How Do IWMs Affect Children in Future Parenting? - 2 Points
- People tend to base their parenting behaviour on their own experiences of being parented
- This explains why children from dysfunctional families tend to have similar families themselves
112
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory A03 - Mixed Evidence for Monotropy - 4 Points
- Bowbly believed the attachment to 'the mother' was special and different, but a other attachments could only be formed after this
- Schaffer and Emerson found that it is possible to attach to multiple people at the same time
- Also unclear whether there is something unique at the first attachment
- Suess et al - Attachment to the mother is important for predicting later behaviour than attachment to the father, but this could simple mean that primary attachments are stronger than other attachments, not different in quality
113
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory A03 - Support for Social Releasers - 4 Points
- Clear evidence that cute infant behaviours are intended to initiate social interaction and this is important to the baby
- Brazelton et al - primary attachment figures instructed to ignore their babies' signals
- Findings - babies initially showed showed some distress, but when the attachment figures continued to ignore them, some responded by curling up and lying motionless
- Supports Bowbly's ideas about the significance of social behaviour in eliciting caregiving
114
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory A03 - Support for IWMs - 3 Points
- Bailey et al - assessed 99 mothers with 1 year olds on the quality of their own mothers using a standard interview procedure, then assessed attachment of the babies to the mother by observation
- Findings - mothers who reported poor attachments to their own parents were more likely to have children classified as poorly attached to them
- Supports the concept of IWMs of attachment being passed through the families
115
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory A03 - Social Sensitivity - 4 Points
- Major implications for choices mothers make when their children are young
- Burman emphasised burden this puts on mothers and how it sets them up to take the blame for later adverse consequences
- This can also push mothers into lifestyle choices like not returning to work
- This was not Bowbly's intention - he thought he was boosting the status of the mother by emphasising their importance
116
Bowlby's Monotropic Theory A03 - Importance of Temperament Ignored - 3 Points
- A different tradition of child development emphasised the role of temperament in the development of social behaviour
- Kagan - some babies are more anxious, some more sociable etc
- These differences can explain later attachment experiences
117
What is the Aim of TSS?
To observe key attachment behaviours as a means of assessing the quality of a child's attachment to a caregiver
118
What 5 Behaviours are Used to Judge Attachment in TSS?
- Proximity seeking
- Exploration and secure base behaviour
- Stranger anxiety
- Separation anxiety
- Response to reunion
119
How is Proximity Seeking Judged in TSS?
Infant with good attachment will stay fairly close to caregiver
120
How is Exploration and Secure Base Behaviour Judged in TSS?
Good attachment enables child to feel confident to explore, using caregiver as S-B
121
How is Stranger Anxiety Judged in TSS?
Sign of attachment to show anxiety when a stranger approaches
122
How is Separation Anxiety Judged in TSS?
Sign of attacment is to show protest at separation from caregiver
123
How is Response to Reunion Judged in TSS?
WIth caregiver after separation for short time under controlled conditions
124
What are the 7 Episodes of TSS?
1. Child encouraged to explore
2. A stranger comes in, talks to the caregiver and approaches child
3. The caregiver leaves the baby and stranger together
4. Caregiver returns and stranger leaves
5. Caregiver leaves child alone
6. The stranger returns
7. Caregiver returns and is reunited with baby
125
What does the 1st Episode Test in TSS?
Exploration and secure base behaviour
126
What Does the 2nd Episode of Test in TSS?
Stranger anxiety
127
What Does the 3rd Episode of Test in TSS?
Separation and Stranger Anxiety
128
What Does the 4th Episode of Test in TSS?
Reunion behaviour and exploration/secure base
129
What Does the 5th Episode of Test in TSS?
Separation anxiety
130
What Does the 6th Episode of Test in TSS?
Stranger anxiety
131
What Does the 7th Episode of Test in TSS?
Reunion behaviour
132
What are the 3 Classifications of Attachment?
Secure Attachment
Insecure Avoidant Attachment
Inscecure Resistance Attachment
133
What Type of Attachment is Type B?
Secure
134
What Type of Attachment is Type A?
Insecure avoidant
135
What Type of Attachment is Type C?
Insecure Resistant
136
What is Secure Attachment (B) Characterised By?
Most desirable type, with healthy psychological outcomes
137
What is Insecure Avoidant Attachment (A) Characterised By?
Low anxiety and weak attachment
138
What is Insecure Resistance Attachment (C) Characterised By?
Strong attachment and high anxiety
139
What Behaviours Does an Securely Attached Child Show in TSS? - 3 Points
- Moderate Separation distress and stranger anxiety
- Explore happily with SB behaviour
- Require and accept comfort on reunion
140
What Behaviours Does an Insecure Avoidantly Attached Child Show in TSS? - 3 Points
- Do not require comfort at reunion stage
- Low separation distress and stranger anxiety
- Explore freely but use SB behaviour
141
What Behaviours Does an Insecure Resistantly Attached Child Show in TSS? - 3 Points
- Huge separation distress and stranger anxiety
- Resist comfort when reunited with caregiver
- Seek great proximity and rarely explore
142
What Percentage of British Toddlers are Securely Attached?
60-75%
143
What Percentage of British Toddlers are Insecure Avoidantly Attached?
20-25%
144
What Percentage of British Toddlers are Insecure Resistantly Attached?
3%
145
TSS A03 - Support for the Validity - 3 Points
- TSS is valid because it can predict/explain subsequent outcomes
- Babies classified as secure typically go on to have better outcomes
- Insecure resistant attachment associated with the worse outcomes
146
TSS A03 - High Inter-Rater Reliability - 2 Points
- This may be due to controlled conditions and the use of behavioural categories which are easy to observe
- Bick et al - IRR at 94% for a team trained in Strange Situation Observations
147
How is TSS Conducted?
Controlled observation that takes in a room with a two way mirror through which psychologists observe
148
TSS A03 - The Test May Be Cultured Bound? - 4 Points
- Cultural differences in childhood experiences mean children are likely to respond differently
- Caregivers from different experiences mean children are likely to respond differently
- Takashi - TSS does not work in Japan because mothers are so rarely separated from babies so separation anxiety is very high
- On reunion, Japanese mothers tend to run to baby and scoop them up, which makes child's behaviour difficult to observe
149
TSS A03 - Could Anxiety Be Due to Temperament? - 3 Points
- It is controversial whether the main influence on anxiety is attachment
- Kagan says it is more likely to be an infant's temperament that has an important influence on behaviour
- Confounding variable on TSS
150
TSS A03 - There is at Least One More Type of Attachment? - 3 Points
- Main Solomon identified a minority of children who show atypical attachments and do not fit in the A, B, or C type
- This is referred to as disorganised attachment - these children show a mix of resistant and avoidant behaviours
- They are most likely to have experience neglect/abuse and most will go on to develop psychological disorders by adulthood
151
Definition of Culture
Refers to the norms and values that exist within any group of people
152
Definition of Individualist Cultures
Emphasis on personal independent and achievement at the expense of group goals - can result in a strong sense of competition
153
Definition of Collectivist Cultures
Emphasis on family and work goals above individual needs and desires - leads to high interdependence
154
Van-IJzendoorn Study - Aim - 2 Points
- Look at proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant attachments across a range of countries
- Look at differences within cultures
155
Van-IJzendoorn Study - Method
Meta-analysis of 32 attachment studies where TSS has been used to investigate proportions of attachment types
156
Van-IJzendoorn Study - How Many Counties Were Studied?
8
157
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What Countries Were Studied
USA
UK
Germany
Japan
Netherlands
Sweden
Israel
China
158
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in USA is Secure?
65%
159
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in UK is Secure?
75%
160
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in Germany is Secure?
57%
161
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in Japan is Secure?
68%
162
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in USA is Insecure-Avoidant?
21%
163
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in UK is Insecure-Avoidant?
22%
164
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in Germany is Insecure-Avoidant?
35%
165
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in Japan is Insecure-Avoidant?
5%
166
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in USA is Insecure-Resistant?
14%
167
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in UK is Insecure-Avoidant?
3%
168
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in Germany is Insecure-Avoidant?
8%
169
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What % of Attachment in Japan is Insecure-Avoidant?
27%
170
Van-IJzendoorn Study - Findings - 3 Points
- Secure (c) was the most common type in all countries
- Insecure-resistant rates are similar to Ainsworth's original sample in individualist cultures, but this was not true for collectivist samples, where insecure-avoidant rates were higher
- Variation within culture is 1.5 greater than between cultures
171
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What is the Reason for the Findings from the USA/UK?
UK and USA are individualist cultures - encourage independence and not being reliant on others
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Van-IJzendoorn Study - What is the Reason for the Findings from Germany? - 2 Points
- German research shows high proportions of avoidant behaviour, which is typical of independent children
- Grossman and Grossman - German parents seek independent, non-clingy infants who obey their commands rather than making demands on the parents.
173
Van-IJzendoorn Study - What is the Reason for the Findings from Japan?
Japanese children are very rarely left by mother so it may be that the 'separation distress' is more due to social than insecure attachment
174
Van-IJzendoorn Study - Conclusions - 4 Points
- Secure attachment is 'the norm'
- The global pattern across cultures tend to be similar to what was found the original study
- TSS is a reliable measure of attachment
- Cultures similarities support the idea that attachment is an innate process
175
Outline the Simonelli et al Study - 2 Points
- Italian secure attachment rates dropped to 50%
- May be due to increased day care
176
Outline the Jin et al Study - 3 Points
- Korean secure vs insecure attachment rates similar to other studies
- But insecure insecure-avoidant rates similar to Japan
- Could be due to similar child-rearing styles
177
Research into Cultural Variations in Attachment A03 - Indigenous Researchers - 3 Points
- Most of the studies have been conducted by indigenous psychologists
- Avoided lots of potential problems in cross-cultural research e.g. language issues and stereotypes
- Likely that researcher-participant communication was successful - valid data
178
Research into Cultural Variations in Attachment A03 - Indigenous Researchers Counterpoint - 3 Points
- Not true for all research
- Data may have been affected by difficulties of gathering data from participants outside own culture
- Data from some countries may have been affected by communication difficulties and bias
179
Research into Cultural Variations in Attachment A03 - Alternative Explanation for Cultural Similarity - 2 Points
- Bowlby suggests cultural similarities are a result of attachment being innate and universal
- Van-IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg suggested that global media presents a particular view of how parents and babies are meant to behave which could override traditions cultural differences in how children are reared
180
Research into Cultural Variations in Attachment A03 - Potential Confounding Variables - 6 Points
- Studies conducted in different usually not matched for mythology when compared in reviews/meta-analysis
- Sample characteristics (poverty/urban/rural) can confound results
- Environmental variables might also differ between studies
- E.G room size, amount/interest of toys
181
Research into Cultural Variations in Attachment A03 - Method of Assessment is Biased - 2 Points
- TSS designed by an American and based on a British theory
- Question over whether we can apply Anglo-American theories and assessments to other cultures
182
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation - When was this Theory Proposed?
1951
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Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation - Was this Theory Proposed Before or After His Monotropic Theory?
Before
184
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation - 3 Points
- Stresses the importance of the continual presence or nurture from a mother or mother-substitute for normal psychological development of babies and toddlers
- "Mother-love in infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health"
- Maternal deprivation in childhood has serious consequences
185
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation - Separation VS Deprivation
Physical separation only leads to deprivation when the child loses emotional care
186
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation - When is the Critical Period in this Theory?
30 months
187
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation - What does the Critical Period Mean in This Theory?
If a child is separated from their mother or mother substitute in the absence of suitable care for an extended time during4 the critical period, Bowlby believed psychological damage was inevitable
188
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation - Effect on Intellectual Development - 2 Points
- Bowlby believed that children who endured deprivation suffer with intellectual development i.e low IQ
- Goldfarb - lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions as opposed to those who were fostered, receiving higher levels of emotional care
189
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation - Effect on Emotional Development - 2 Points
- Bowlby identified affectionless psychopaths as an emotional effect of maternal deprivation
- These people are unable not experience guilt or strong emotions for others which prevents the development of relationships with others and increases the chances of criminal behaviour
190
44 Thieves Study - Aim
Breaking the mother's bond with the child in the initial stages and what effect it has on social, emotional, and intellectual development
191
44 Thieves Study - Who Did Bowlby Interview?
44 juvenile thieves
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44 Thieves Study - Why Did He Interview these People?
Likely for affectionless psychopathy
193
44 Thieves Study - Who were the Control Group?
44 children with emotional problems but not committed any crimes
194
44 Thieves Study - Why did He Interview the Parents?
To determine whether their had been separation in the critical period
195
44 Thieves Study - How were the Children Investigated? - 3 Points
- IQ test
- Emotional attitudes towards IQ test
- Interviewed parents
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44 Thieves Study - Findings - 4 Points
- 14/44 could be described as affectionless psychopaths
- 12/14 had experienced prolonged separation from mothers in first 2 years
- 5/30 had experienced separations
- 2 in control group had experienced long separation
197
44 Thieves Study - Conclusions - 2 Points
- Nurture is to blame
- Long term maternal deprivation increases chances of delinquency, affectionless psychopathy and abnormally low IQ
198
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation A03 - The Evidence is Poor - 5 Points
- Used lots sources of evidence for maternal deprivation, including studies of children orphaned during WW2, those growing in poor quality orphanages, and his 44 thieves study
- These pieces of evidence are flawed - war-orphans experienced trauma, and often poor after-care which may have caused these developmental issues
- 44 thieves study was biased because out the assessments and interviews were Bowlby himself
- Goldfarb - followed up 30 orphaned children to 12 yeas - half had been fostered by 4 months, half were in orphanage
- At 12, their IQ scores were significantly different
- Foster group averaged 96, whilst orphanage group averaged 68
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Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation A03 - Counter Evidence from Lewis - 2 Points
- Partially replicated 44 thieves study on large scale - 500 young people
- In this sample, a history of early prolonged separation from the mother predicted neither criminality or difficulty in forming close relationships
200
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation A03 - Critical Period is More of a Sensitive Period - 4 Points
- Used the term 'critical period' because he believed that prolonged separation caused inevitable damage it if occurred within the time frame
- Some cases of severe deprivation have still resulted in positive outcomes with good social interaction and after-care
- Koluchova - repotted case of twin boys from Czechoslovakia - who were isolated from 18 months to 7 years
- After, they were looked after by 2 loving adults and appeared to recover fully, showing periods may be sensitive rather than critical
201
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation A03 - Research Support from Animal Studies - 2 Points
- Harlow - showed the long term effects of maternal deprivation in monkeys
- Levy et al - showed that separating baby rats from their mother for as little as a day held permanent effect on their social development, but not other aspects of development
202
Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation A03 - Failure to Distinguish Between Deprivation and Privation - 3 Points
- Rutter suggested Bowlby confused 2 concepts when spoke of deprivation - he made the distinction between deprivation and privation
- Said deprivation means the loss of the primary attachment figure after an attachment has been formed, and privation is the failure to ever form an attachment
- Rutter claimed that the long-term damage Bowbly relates to deprivation is more likely to actually be the result of privation
203
Research into Romanian Orphans - Rutter et al's ERA Procedure - 4 Points
- 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain.
- Tested to what extent good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions.
- Tested physical, cognitive, emotional development at ages 4,6, 11 +15.
- Control group - 53 British adopted kids.
204
Research into Romanian Orphans - Rutter et al's ERA Findings - 4 Points 3
- At age 11 they showed differential rates of recovery related to adoption age.
- Mean IQ for those adopted before 6 months = 102, between 6 months and 2 yrs = 86 and after 2yrs = 77
- Differences remained at age 16.
- Adopted after 6 months, displayed disinhibited attachment.
205
Research into Romanian Orphans - Zeanah et al's BEIP Procedure - 4 Points
- Assessed attachment in 95 Romanian children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their lives in institutional care
- They were compared to a control group of 50 children who had never lived in an institution
- Attachment type measured using the SS
- Carers were asked about unusual social behaviour including clingy, attention-seeking behaviour directed inappropriately at all adults
206
c - Zeanah et al's BEIP Findings - 4 Points
- 71% of control group were secure
- 19% of institutional group were secure
- 44% of institutional had disinhibited attachment
- 20% of control group had disinhibited attachment
207
Research into Romanian Orphans - What are the Two Main Effects of Institutionalisation?
Disinhibited attachment
Abnormally low IQ
208
Research into Romanian Orphans - What are the 3 Signs of Disinhibited Attachment?
- Attention seeking
- Clingy
- Equally friendly towards familiar people and strangers
209
Research into Romanian Orphans A03 - Practical Value - 4 Points
- Improved how children are cared for in institutions
- Children in orphanages and children's homes now give children 1 to 2 key careers
- Means children can develop normal attachments and avoid disinhibited
- Romanian Orphan Studies are socially sensitive - can create bias and self-fulfilling prophecies
210
Research into Romanian Orphans A03 - Fewer Confounding Variables - 3 Points
- Studies prior to these used children who had experienced loss or trauma before being institutionalised
- Developmental effects could have been from institutionalisation or early childhood trauma
- With the Romanian orphans studies, psychologists were able to study them without confounding variables so the findings have increased internal validity
211
Research into Romanian Orphans A03 - Atypical Orphanages - 2 Points
- The conditions in Romanian orphanages may be too poor to apply findings to normal institutions or situations where children experience deprivation
- Harmful effects may be result of poor institutional care, rather than general institutional care
212
Research into Romanian Orphans A03 - Unclear Long Term Effects - 4 Points
- Lack of data on adult development
- Most ERA data is from early-mid 20s
- Don't yet have data to answer the most interesting questions about long term effects of institutional care
- Possible that late-adopted children can still catch up but will be a while before we know
213
Research into Romanian Orphans A03 - Ethical Issues with BEIP
Ethical issue of giving better care to some children over others
214
Definition of Internal Working Models
The mental representations we all carry of our attachment to our primary caregiver
215
Why are Internal Working Models Important?
Affect our future relationships because they carry our perceptions of what relationships are like
216
Who Put Forward the Idea of Internal Working Models?
Bowlby
217
What are the 2 Things that Happen When the First Relationship We Have is Loving and Reliable?
- Seek functional relationships
- Behave functionally themselves within relationships
218
What are the 3 Things that Happen When the First Relationship We Have is Not Loving and Reliable?
- May not be emotionally close or involved enough (type A behaviour)
- May be controlling and argumentative (type C behaviour)
- May struggle to from relationships in the first place
219
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - Kerns' Findings
Securely attached infants tend to form the best quality childhood friendships, whilst insecurely attached infants often have friendship difficulties later on
220
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - Myron-Wilson and Smith's Findings - 3 Points
- Secure children were very unlikely to be involved in bullying
- Insecure avoidant children were most likely to be victims
- Insecure resistant children were most likely to be bullies
221
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - Relationships in Adulthood as Parents - 3 Points
- People tend to base their own parenting on their internal working models, which means attachment type is passed through generations
- Bailey et al - assessed 99 mothers attachments to their own mothers using Adult Attachment interviews as well as assessing their children's attachment in TSS
- Majority of mothers had same attachment classification towards both their mothers and their own children
222
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - McCarthy - Aim
To instigate attachment and its effect on both romantic relationships and and friendships in adulthood
223
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - McCarthy - Procedure
Investigated 40 women on their adulthood romantic relationships and friendships, who had been assessed as infants to determine their early attachment types
224
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - McCarthy - 3 Findings
- Secure has best adult relationships
- Insecure resistant had problems maintaining relationships
- Insecure avoidant struggled with intimacy in romantic relationships
225
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - McCarthy - Conclusion
Early childhood attachment influences outcomes in adult relationships
226
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - Hazan and Shaver Procedure - 3 Points
- Analysed 620 replies to a love quiz in an American local newspaper
- Quiz had 3 sections assessing different things
- Attachment types assessed by asking respondents which of 3 statements best describes their feelings
227
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - Hazan and Shaver Procedure - What were the 3 Sections?
- Most important or current relationship
- General love experiences
- Attachment types
228
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - Hazan and Shaver Findings - 5 Points
- 56% were securely attached
- 25% were avoidant
- 19% were resistant
- Secure were most likely to have good quality and long lasting experiences
- Avoidant tended to jealous and feared intimacy
229
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships - Hazan and Shaver Conclusion
Patterns of attachment are reflected in romantic relationships
230
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships A03 - Issues with Validity - 4 Points
- Most studies of attachment to the primary caregiver and other significant people rely on interviews instead of TSS
- Interviews have validity problems because of the self-report nature
- Participants have to be honest and have a realistic view of their relationships and provide accurate recollections of their early relationships from any years ago
- Some findings may be untrue due to the methodology lacking validity
231
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships A03 - Influence of Early Attachment is Probabilistic - 3 Points
- Bowlby may have exaggerated influence of internal working models
- Clarke and Clarke - describe influence of early attachment on later relationships as probabilistic in that people are not doomed if they have had issues with relationships, they just have a greater risk
- However, knowing someone's attachment status gives us an opportunity to intervene and help their development
232
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships A03 - Research Support - 3 Points
- Reviews linking attachment to later development consistently concluded that early attachment predicted later attachment, emotional wellbeing and attachment to own children
- Strength of the relationship between early attachment and later attachment depends on attachment type and the aspect of later development
- Presence of research support increases the validity of the concept of IWMs
233
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships A03 - Evidence is Mixed - 3 Points
- Becker et al (Regensburg longitudinal study) - followed 43 participants from 1 year old
- At age 16, attachment type was assessed using the Adult Attachment Interview and no evidence of continuity was found
- Means alternative factors may be more important and casts doubt over credibility of IWMs
234
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships A03 - Association Does Not Mean Causality - 3 Points
- Studies of infant attachment associated with later relationship outcomes, the implication is that the attachment type causes these outcomes
- A third factor may be able to explain the continuity, such as parenting style or temperament
- Shows that Bowbly's concept of IWMs are responsible for later outcomes may be flawed
