research methods Flashcards
1
Q
what are aims developed from ? (1)
A
theories
2
Q
we have a theory that energy drinks affect how much people talk, this is based on our understanding having read a few research studies, that energy drinks contain sugar and caffeine and these substances increase alertness making people chattier. a new energy drink speedup has come to the market and were keen to know whether it might affect the talkativness of those who drink it.
create an aim for this experiment (1)
A
to investigate whether drinking energy drinks makes people more talkative
3
Q
what is an aim ? (2)
A
- general statements
- describe purpose of an investigation
4
Q
what is a hypothesis (3)
A
- statement
- made at the start of a study
- clearly states relationships between variables
5
Q
what are the 2 types of hypothesis (2)
A
- directional
- non directional
6
Q
what is a directional hypothesis (1)
A
- clear sort of difference between 2 conditions
7
Q
we have a theory that energy drinks affect how much people talk, this is based on our understanding having read a few research studies, that energy drinks contain sugar and caffeine and these substances increase alertness making people chattier. a new energy drink speedup has come to the market and were keen to know whether it might affect the talkativness of those who drink it.
create a directional hypothesis for this experiment (2)
A
- people who drink speedup are more talkative than people who dont
- people who drink water are less talkative than people who drink speedup
8
Q
what is a non directional hypothesis (2)
A
- states there is a diff between conditions
- nature of diff isnt specified
9
Q
we have a theory that energy drinks affect how much people talk, this is based on our understanding having read a few research studies, that energy drinks contain sugar and caffeine and these substances increase alertness making people chattier. a new energy drink speedup has come to the market and were keen to know whether it might affect the talkativness of those who drink it.
create a non directional hypothesis for this experiment (1)
A
- there is a difference in talkativeness between people who drink speedupp and people who drink water
10
Q
when are directional hypothesis’ used? (1)
A
- when findings of previous research suggests a particular outcome
11
Q
when are non directional hypothesis’ used ? (2)
A
- when there is no previous research
- or findings from earlier studies are contradictory
12
Q
we have a theory that energy drinks affect how much people talk, this is based on our understanding having read a few research studies, that energy drinks contain sugar and caffeine and these substances increase alertness making people chattier. a new energy drink speedup has come to the market and were keen to know whether it might affect the talkativness of those who drink it.
would a directional or non directional hypothesis be used ? (1)
A
directional
13
Q
what are the 2 levels of IV (2)
A
- control condition
- experimental condition
14
Q
we have a theory that energy drinks affect how much people talk, this is based on our understanding having read a few research studies, that energy drinks contain sugar and caffeine and these substances increase alertness making people chattier. a new energy drink speedup has come to the market and were keen to know whether it might affect the talkativness of those who drink it. for this experiment we need comparison we could either:
- compare ppts talkativeness before and after drinking speedup
- compare 2 groups of pptnts - those who drink speedup with those who drink water
what would the control conditions and experimental conditions be ? (3)
A
- control condition: drink of water / no speedup
- experimental condition: speedup
15
Q
what should be obvious within a good hypothesis (1)
A
- how each variables has been operationalised
16
Q
why does operatonalisation of variables make a good hypothesis ? (2)
A
makes hypothesis clear and testable
17
Q
we have a theory that energy drinks affect how much people talk, this is based on our understanding having read a few research studies, that energy drinks contain sugar and caffeine and these substances increase alertness making people chattier. a new energy drink speedup has come to the market and were keen to know whether it might affect the talkativness of those who drink it.for this experiment we need comparison we could
compare 2 groups of pptnts - those who drink speedup with those who drink water
create a hypothesis where variables have been operationalised (1)
A
after drinking 300ml of speedup participatents say more words in the next 5 minutes than participatents who drink 300ml of water
18
Q
when is reliability achieved ? (1)
A
when you get results that are consistent
19
Q
what is validity ? (1)
A
whether something measures what it is supposed to measure
20
Q
what is mundane realism ? (1)
A
extent to which research env reflects real world
21
Q
when is high mundane realism achieved ? (1)
A
- if research is on a situation ptnt can be put on in real life
22
Q
what are the 3 types of validity ? (3)
A
- internal validity
- ecternal validity
- ecological validity
23
Q
what is internal validity (2)
A
- refers to validity of exp within conditions it is carried out in
- extent to which we can be sure that research findings are due to suggested mecchanisms
24
Q
what is external validity ? (2)
A
- refects to validity outside research situation
- extent to which results can be generalised to other settings, population + times
25
what is ecological validity (1)
- extent to which research task used a realistic task or process from real life
26
what does high ecological validity lead to (1)
generalisation of findings to situations outside setting
27
what type of validity is ecological validity a part of ? (1)
external validity
28
how can we be sure that the results of a study are reliable ? (2)
- if study is repeatable
- + similar or same results obtained
29
what are extraneous variables
- any additional unwanted variables that may potentially interfere with the IV or DV
30
what are nuisance variables (3)
- extraneous variables that are straightforward to control
- eg age of pptnt or lighting in a lab
- do not vary systematically with IV (this means they may make waters of the experiment 'muddy' but they do not cofound the findings of the study)
31
what are cofounding variables, use the energy drink study to create a potential cofounding variable
- do change systematically with IV
- eg we have 20 pptnts in energy drink study
- we use firt 10 to arrive for water group and last 10 for energy drink group
- coincidentaly first 10pptnts are extroverted and last 10 are shy and introverted
- when we analyse results we find that energy drin group are chattier but we arent sure if this is because of energy drink or personality
- personality = cofounding variable
32
give an example of an extrneous variable which is very significant in experimental research and is extremely hard to control (1)
- participatent reactivity
33
explain how demand characteristics may be expressed in an experiment (2)
- ppts will try work out what is going on and may act how they believe the researcher wants people to act
- or may delibverately underperorm to sabotage the results of the experiment
34
why are demand characteristics bad ? (1)
behavior is no longer natural
35
what are investigator effects
- any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome
36
what can investigator effects include ? (2)
- expectancy effects
- unconcious cues
37
give an example of investigator effects in eyewitness testimonies (1)
leading questions
38
give an examle of investigator effects in the energy drink experiment (2)
- may smile more during interactions w some pptnts more than others
- may encourage greater level of chattiness from energy drink pptnts
39
what is randomisation (3)
- use of chance
- to reduce researchers influence of design of investigation
- minimises effects of extraneous/cofounding variables
40
what does randomisation attempt to control ? (1)
investigator effects
41
give an example of how randomisation could be used in a memory experiment which involves pptnts recalling words from a list (2)
- order of words in list should be randomly generated
- so experimenter doesnt decide position of each word
42
explain how randomisation could be used in the energy drink study if you are trying to determin what quantity of energy drink causes chatiness (4)
- set up 4 experimental conditions:
- 1. drinking water
- 2. drinking 100ml energy drink
- 3. drinking 200ml energy drink
- 4. drinking 300ml energy drink
- all pptnts must take part in each condition
- order which conditions were completed would need to be randomised by each pptnt
43
what is standarisation in an investigation (3)
- all pptnts should be subject to same env
- information
- and experience
44
what must be included when procedures are standarised ? (1)
standarised instructions
45
what does standarisation lead to ? (1)
- non standarised changes in procedure wont act as extraneous variables
46
what are the 3 types of experimental design ? (3)
independant groups
repeated measures
* * matched pairs
47
what are experimental designs ? (1)
the way which pptnts are used in an experiment
48
what is an independant groups design ? (2)
when 2 seperate groups of pptnts experience 2 diff conditions
- performance of 2 groups is compared
49
what is a repeated measures design ? (2)
- all pptnts experience BOTH conditions of exp
- 2 sets of data from both conditions compared to see if there is a diff
50
what is matched pairs experimental design (3)
- pptnts paired together on a variable relevant to experiment eg. on a memory exp they may be matched on IQ levels
- 1 pptnt from each pair allocated to a diff condition
- compare results of each condition
51
evaluate weaknesses of independant groups design (2)
- pptnts who occupy diff groups arent the same so diff between groups on the DV may be due to individual diffs rather than the effect of the IV
- less economical than repeated measures as twice as many pptnts needed
52
evaluate the strenhths of independant groups design (1)
pptnts only contrbutes to result of 1 conditions so cant guess aims of exp or try sabotage results = less demand characteristics
53
what can be used in order to reduce the effects of individual differences in independant groups design (2
- random allocations
- eg write letters A or B or paper and place in a hat and researcher selects them 1 at a time to assign pptnts to groups
54
evaluate weaknessed of repeated measures design (3)
- order effects arise
- fatigue = performance may deteriorate in next condition
- pptnts more likely to work out aim = demand characteristics
55
evaluate the strengths of repeated measures design (2)
- same pptnts participate in each condition so no individual diffs can affect DV
- more economical
56
what do researchers use to deal with order effects in a repeated measures design (1)
- counterbalancing
57
explain how counterbalancing is used and why it is used (3)
- attempt to control order effects ina repeated measures design
- half pptnts take part in conditions A then B
- other half take part in condition B then A
58
what is counterbalancing sometimes reffered to as ? (1)
the ABBA technique
59
evaluate the weaknesses of a matched pairs design (2)
pptnts can never be matched excatly - still be important diffs between pptnts which may affect DV
less economical - people have to be matched on variables relevant to exp may require testing = ££££
60
evaluate the strengths of a matched pairs design (1)
pptnts take part in only 1 condition so demand characteristics + order effects less of a problem
61
what are order effects and give an example (2)
- when a pptnts behavior is influenced by order of conditions they are exposed to
- eg boredome or fatigue may deteriorate performance in upcoming conditions
62
what do repeated measures design guarantee ? (1)
that we are comparing 'like with like'
63
what are the 4 types of experiments (4)
- lab
- field
- natural
- quasi
64
what are lab experiments (2)
- conducted in highly controlled env
- researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV
65
what are field experiments (2)
- takes place in a natural setting
- researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV
66
what are natural experiments (2)
- change in IV not brought be researcher
- researcher records effect on DV
67
what are quasi experiments (3)
- study that is almost an experiment
- IV based on existing diff between ppl eg age
- no one has minipulated this IV
68
evaluate the strengths of a lab experiment (2)
- highly scientific = high internal validity
- can be replicated = reliable
69
evaluate the weaknesses of a lab experiment (2)
- artificil setting + tasks = low extrenal validity
- low ecological validity as pptnts know they are being tested
70
evaluate the strengths of a field experiment (4)
- env is more natural = high external validity
- less demand characteristics
71
evaluate the limitations of field studies (2)
- precise replication not possible
- ethical issues as cannot consent to being studies
72
evaluate the strengths of natural experiments (2)
- researchertakes advantage if pre existing variables = authentic responses to IV
- high external validity
73
evaluate the weknesses of natural experiments (2)
- naturally occuring event only occurs very rarely = hard to generalise
- pptnts wont be randomly allocated = individual diffs
74
evaluate the strengths of quasi- experiments (2)
- often carried out under controlled conditions = high internal validity
- can be easily replicated
75
evaluate the weknesses of quasi-experiments (1)
pptnts wont be randomly allocated = individual diffs
76
what is a target population ? (1)
large group of individuls researcher is interested in studying
77
what is a sample ? (2)
- smaller group selected by researcher
- from target population
78
what are the 5 types of sampling (5)
- random sample
- systematic sample
- stratified sample
- opportunity sample
- volunteer sample
79
how is a random sample obtained ? (3)
- complete list of all members
- assign all names a number
- use some sort of lottery method to generate sample
80
what is a systematic sample ? (1)
- when every nth term of a population is selected
81
what is a sampling frame ? (1)
a list of ppl in a population
82
explain how a stratified sample is produced (2)
- sample frame produced
- select sampling system to select people eg every 3rd person
83
explain how a strtified sample is obtained (3)
- identify diff stratas that make up a population
- work out proportions needed for sample to be representative
- select pptnts that make up each strata using random sampling
84
explain how an opportunity sample is obtained (2)
- researcher asks whoever is around
- researcher selects anyone who is availible + willing during time of research
85
how is a volunteer sample obtained ? (2)
- place an advert up
- pptnts select themselves
86
what is a volunteer sample also referred to as ? (1)
self-selection
87
state some strengths of a random sample (1)
- free from researcher bias
88
state some weknesses of random samples (4)
- difficult + time consuming
- complete list of target population hard to obtain
- sample may still be unrepresentative
- selected pptnts may refuse to take part
89
state some strenbths of a systematic sample (2)
- avoids researcher bias
- fairly representative
- can be generalised
90
state some weaknesses of a systematic sample (1)
91
state some weaknesses of a systematic sample (1)
- selected pptnts may refuse to take part
92
state some strengths of a stratified sample (3)
- avoids researcher bias
- representative as desgnes to accurately represent composition of population
- generalisation is possible
93
state some weaknesses of a stratified sample (2)
- identified strata cant reflect all ways ppl are diff
- complete representation not possible
94
state some strengths of an opportunity sample (3)
- less effort
- less time consuming
- cheaper
95
state some weknesses of an opportunity sample (4)
- selected pptnts may refuse to take part
- unrepresentative of target population as draw from v specific area
- researcher bias
- cant be generalised
96
state some strengths of a volunteer sample (3)
- easy
- minimal imput from researcher
- less time consuming
97
state some weknesses of a volunteer sample (1)
- volunteer bias - asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile of a person, that is, one who is helpful, keen and curios
98
what are the 4 major ethical issues delt with in psychology (4)
- informed consent
- deception
- protection from harm
- privacy and confidentiality
99
what does informed consent involve making the pptnt aware of ? (4)
- aims of research
- procedures
- their rights
- what their data will be used for
100
why may a researcher be againts informed consent ? (1)
- behavior wont be natural as they know aims of procedure
101
what is deception (2)
- deliberately misleading or witholding info from pptsnts
- at any stage of investigation
102
in what occasion can deception be justified (1)
if it doesnt cause pptnts undue stress
103
describe protection of harm
- pptnts shouldbt be put under any more danger which they would be under in there everyday lives during the procedure
104
what should pptnts be specifically protected from during a procedure (5)
- physical harm
- physicologicl harm
- emnbarassement
- inadequacy
- stress or pressure
105
state an important feature of protection from harm (1)
pptnts being reminded that they have the right to withdraw
106
what is a major ethical rights which pptnts have ? (1)
right to withdraw
107
what is a pptptnts right of privacy during an experiment (1)
- pptnts have right to control info about themselves
108
what is a pptptnts right to confidentiality during an experiment ? (1)
right to have any personal data protected
109
state the guidlines which researchers have a profecssional duty to observe (1)
- BPS codes of ethics
110
who set the BPS code of ethics ? (1)
british psychological society
111
explain how informed consent is dealt with, in the BPS codes of ethics (2)
- consent form
- inculing all detail which may affect decision to participate
112
explain how deception must be delt with, as ordered by the BPS code of coduct (4)
- debrief pptnts at end of study
- made aware of true aims
- give info they werent supplied with during study
- told what data will be used for - given right to withhold data
113
explain how protection from harm is delt with as ordered by the BPS code of ethics (3)
- debriefing
- reassure pptnts their behavior was normal
- researcher should provide counselling if needed
114
explain how confidentiality should be dealt with, as ordered by the BPS code of ethics (1)
- maintain anonymity ( record no personal details)
115
explain how anonymity can be maintained during a case study on a study (2)
- refer to pptnts using numbers
- or initials
116
state what must usually be standard practice during briefing and debriefing (1)
remind pptnts their data will be protected throughout process
117
name 3 alternative ways of getting consent (3)
- presumptive consent
- prior general consent
- retrospective consent
118
explain what presumptive consent is (2)
- similar group to pptnts asked if study is acceptable
- if group agree, then consent of pptnts is presumed
119
explain what prior general consent is (3)
- pptnts give permission to take part in no. diff studies
- inculding one that includes deception
- pptnts consent to being decieved
120
explain what retrospective consent is (2)
- pptnts asked for consent dring debriefing
121
in what 2 conditions may the ppnt be in when retrosepective consent is asked for by the researcher ? (2)
- may not have been aware of their participation
- may have been decieved
122
what is a pilot study ? (2)
- small scale trial run of actual investigation
- involve a handfull of pptnts
123
explain the benefits of pilot studies (4)
- allows researcher to identify potential issues
- researcher can modify procedure
- save time
- save money
124
what are the 2 types of procedures ? (2)
- single-blind procedures
- double - blind procedures
125
what is a single - blind procedure ? (2)
- pptnts not told aims + other details of procedure
- researcher knows aims of pptnts
126
what are the benefits of single - blind procedures (2)
- control cofounding variables
- of demand characteristics
127
what is a double blind procedure (1)
- neither pptnt nor researcher know true aims of investigation
128
state a procedure which is often a double - blind procedures (1)
- trug trial
129
what are the 2 types of groups / conditions of an investigation (2)
- experimental group / condition
- control group / condition
130
state which group / conditiojn is experimental and which is control in a drug trial (2)
recieves drug = experimental
recieves placebo = control
131
what is the main purpose of control groups / conditions ? (1)
comparison
132
explain why observations are used by researchers (2)
- can study observable behavior in a natural or controlled setting
- w out having to ask
133
what are the 6 types of observation (6)
- naturallistic
- controlled
- covert
- overt
- participatent
- non participatent
134
describe what naturalistic observatins are (2)
- take place in setting or context
- where target behavior would usually occur
135
what are controlled observations (2)
- some control over variables
- and manipulate variables to observe behavior
136
what are covert observations (1)
-pptnts unaware they are being observed
137
what are overt observations (1)
pptnts aware they are being observed
138
what are participatent observations (1)
- observer become part of group they are studying
139
what are non participatent observations 91)
researcher emains seperate from group they are studying
140
state some + of naturallistic observations (2)
- high external valisity
- can be generalised
141
state some - of naturalistic observations (2)
- lack of control = hard to replicate
- uncontrolled ext V's = harder to observe
142
state some + of controlled observations (2)
- observation = easier as less ext V's
- replication
143
state some - of controlled observations (1)
- less generalisiable
144
state some + of covert observations (2)
-natural behavior
- high validity
145
state some - of covert observations (1)
ethics may be questioned
146
state some + of overt observations (1)
- ethically acceptable
147
state some - of overt observations (1)
unatural behavior
148
state some + of participatent observations (1)
- increased insight on lives of ppl being studied
-
149
state some - of participatent observations (1)
- researcher may identify too much w pptnts so lose objectivity
150
state some + of non pptnt observations (1)
- researcher maintains objective psychological distance from pptnts
151
state some - of non ppnt observations (1)
- researcher may lose valuable insight
152
what does it mean when a researcher has gone native ?
lost objectivity of study too much
153
what is an unstructured observation ? (1)
- researcher writes down everything they see
154
when is an unstructured observation likely to be used (2)
- observation small in scale
- few pptnts
155
what is a structured observation ? (2)
- simplify target behavior that will become main focus of study
- use predetermined list of behavior + sampling methods
156
what must a researcher do in order to produce a structured observation (1)
- break up target behavior into a set of behavioral categories
157
describe the nesessary features of target behavior (3)
- presicely defined
- observable
- measurable
158
what must be included within a behavioral checklist ? (1)
all the ways which target behavior may occur
159
state the 2 types of sampling which may be used by a researcher who is continuously recording data in an unstructured observation (2)
- event sampling
- time sampling
160
explain event sampling (1)
- count number of times particular behavior occurs in target pptnts
161
explain time sampling
- record behavior within a pre-establiszhed time frame
162
state some + of structured observations (3)
- recording data is easier
- recording data is more systematic
- produces quantitative data = easier to analyse
163
state some + of unstructured observations (1)
- more detailed data
164
state some - of unstructured observations (2)
- observer bias - may choose to only record behavior that catches there eye
- qualitative data - harder to analyse
165
state a benefit of behavioral categories (1)
make data collection more structured + objective
166
when is event sampling useful ? (1)
-when target behavior or event happens infrequently
\
167
state a weakness of event sampling (1)
- if event is too ccomplex observer may overlook important details
168
state a strength of time sampling (1)
- reduces number of observations that have to be made
169
state a weakness of time sampling (1)
behavior that has been sampled may be underepresentative of observation as a whole
170
state the 2 self report techniques (2)
- questionnaires
- interviews
171
what is a questionnaire (2)
- set of written questions
- used to asses ones thoughts and / or experiences
172
what types of questions can be included in a questionnaire (2)
- open questions
- closed questions
173
what is an open question (2)
- no fixed range of answers
- pptnts free to answer in any way they wish
174
what type of sata is produced by open questions ? (1)
qualitative
175
what is a closed question (1)
- fixed number of responses
176
give an exampleof responses which may be provided by closed questions (2)
- yes / no
- 1-10
177
what type of data is produced by closed questions ?
quantitative data
178
what is an interview ? (3)
- live encounter
- where one person asks another questions
- to assess thoughts and / or experiences
179
what are the 3 types of interviews ? (3)
- structured
- unstructured
- semi - structured
180
what is a structured interview (1)
- predermined set of qu's asked in a fixed order
181
what is an unstructured interview (3)
- no set qu's
- general aim to discuss a certain topic
- interactions are free flowing
182
what is a semi structured interview ? (2)
- list of qu's
- interviewer also free to ask follow up questions when they feel it is appropriate
183
give a popular example of a semi structured interview (1)
job interview
184
give some strengths of questionnaires (5)
- cost effective
- alot of data gathered as distributed to many ppl
- low effort
- data produced usually straighforward to analyse
- easzy to replicate
185
state some limitations regarding questionnaires (2)
- pptnts may lie for social desiribility
- demand characteristics
186
what is asquiescence bias ? (1)
tendancy to agree with items on questionnaire
regardless of content of qu
187
state some strengths regarding structured interviews (2)
- easy to replicate
- reduces diff between interviewer + interviewee
188
state some weknesses of structured interviews (1)
- interviewer cant deviate or elaborate = cause frustration
189
state some strengths of unstructured interviews (2)
- more flexibility
- interviewer gains insight on interviewees worldview
190
state some weaknesses ofunstructured interviews (2)
- analysis of data not straightforward
- interviewee may lie for social desiribility
191
state the different types which closed questions can be further divided into (3)
- likert scales
- rating scales
- fixed choice option
192
what is a likert scale ? (1)
scale which respondant indicates their agreement with a statement using a scale of 5 points
193
what is a rating scale ?
scale which gets respondants to identify value that represents strength of feeling about specific topic
194
what is a fixed choice option ? (2)
- includes a list of possible options
- respondants indicate those that apply to them
195
explain how an interview should be designed (5)
- involve an interview schedule standarised for each pptnt
- interviewer take notes
- usually interviewer + single pptnts
- should be done in quiet room
- interviewees reminded answers will be treated in strict confidence
196
what is an interview schedule ? (1)
list of qus interviewer needs to cover
197
why should the interview schedule be standarised for all pptnts ? (1)
reduce effect of interviewer bias
198
why must an interview be done in a quiet room ? (1)
increases likelihood that interviewee will open up
199
which factor is the most important when designing questionnaires and interviews ? (1)
clarity
200
state what must be avoided by an interviewer or questionnaire (5)
- overuse of jargon
- emotive language
- leading questions
- double - barelled questions
- double negatives
201
what is jargon ? (1)
technical terms only familiar to those within a specialised field or area
202
what are double barelled questions ? (1)
contain 2 questions in 1
203
give an example of a douboe negative question (1)
i am not unhappy in my job
204
why must overuse of jargon be avoided in interviews and questionnaires ? (1)
unecessarily complex
205
why must use of emotive language and leading questions be avoided in interviews and questionnaires ? (2)
- assumes persons answer
- interviewee may agree for social desirability
206
why must double barrelled questions be avoided in interviews and questionnaires ? (1)
interviewee may agree w one half of question and not the other
207
why must double negatives be avoided in interviews and questionnaires ? (1)
- difficult for respondant to decipher
208
what type of closed question is shown here ?
rating scale
209
what type of closed questions is shown here ?
likert scale
210
what type of closed question is shown here ?
fixed choice option
