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Psychology > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

1
Q

define aim

A

a statement which explains what the experiment is attempting to achieve

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2
Q

define hypothesis

A

a clear, precise, testable statement which makes a prediction of the direction that results may take

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3
Q

what is the difference between an aim and hypothesis

A

an aim is a statement of investigation whereas the hypothesis is a prediction

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4
Q

what are the two types of hypothesis

A

alternative- predicts there will be a difference/relationship
null- predicts there will be no difference/relationship

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5
Q

what are the two types of alternative hypothesis

A

directional- predicts the direction the results will go
non-directional- predicts a difference but not a direction

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6
Q

define the independent variable

A

the variable being manipulated

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7
Q

define the dependent variable

A

the variable being measured

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8
Q

define extraneous variables

A

additional or unwanted variables which are, where possible, controlled or removed by the researcher

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9
Q

define confounding variables

A

variables which change the iv

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10
Q

define demand characteristics

A

participants behave in the way they believe is expected of them or find the aim and behave in a way to influence the results

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11
Q

define the hawthorne effect

A

being watched makes us change how we act

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12
Q

define the social desirability bias

A

acting in a way to look ‘good’

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13
Q

define investigator effects

A

a researcher consciously/unconsciously influencing the outcomes of the research

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14
Q

types of investigator effects

A

non verbal communication- body language hints at correct/incorrect behaviour
physical characteristics- behaviour changes based on the appearance of the researcher
bias in interpretation of data- interprets what is wanted to be obtained from the data

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15
Q

define order effects

A

the order that participants complete conditions in affects participants’ behaviour

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16
Q

what are the two types of order effects

A

practice effects- participants may perform better in the second condition as they know what to expect
fatigue effects- performance may be worse in the second condition as participants are tired

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17
Q

how can order effects increase the chances of demand characteristics

A

practice effects- participants find the aim with repeated conditions, performing better and affecting results
fatigue effects- participants may become bored ad so affect the study by manipulating results

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18
Q

describe standardisation

A

keeping variables the same

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19
Q

describe counterbalancing

A

ensuring variables occur in all possible combinations

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20
Q

describe randomisation

A

deciding the order of the variables by chance

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21
Q

describe single blind

A

ensuring that participants do not know the details of the experiment

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22
Q

describe double blind

A

participants and experimenters do not know the details of the experiment

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23
Q

describe independent groups

A

ppts only complete one condition of the experiment

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24
Q

strengths of independent groups

A

+no order effects
+lower drop-out rate (attrition)

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25
Q

weaknesses of independent groups

A

-groups may not be well matched
-requires twice as many ppts

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26
Q

describe repeated measures

A

all ppts complete all conditions of the experiment

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27
Q

strengths of repeated measures

A

+less ppts saves money and time
+groups are perfectly matched

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28
Q

weaknesses of repeated measures

A

-may show order effects
-demand characteristics may affect results

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29
Q

describe matched pairs

A

ppts are matched based on a factor and each complete a condition

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30
Q

strengths of matched pairs

A

+control of participant variables

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31
Q

weaknesses of matched pairs

A

-time to gather and match participants
-may not be possible to completely match both groups

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32
Q

define target population

A

the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn

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33
Q

define sample

A

a group of people who take part in research who are presumed to be fair and representative of the total population

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34
Q

define sample bias

A

certain groups are over/under represented within the sample selected, limiting generalisability to outside the sample

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35
Q

define representative sample

A

a sample that will reflect how the population as a whole would respond to the experiment

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36
Q

describe random sampling

A

all of the target population’s members have an equal chance of being selected

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37
Q

strengths of random sampling

A

+no researcher bias
+prevents choosing ppts to support hypothesis

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38
Q

weakness of random sampling

A

-time consuming
-still unrepresentative
-participants may refuse to take part

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39
Q

describe systematic sampling

A

there is a system for selecting participants, every nth person

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40
Q

strengths of systematic sampling

A

+no researcher bias
+representative

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41
Q

weaknesses of systematic sampling

A

-time consuming
-unrepresentative if ppts are underrepresented

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42
Q

describe stratified sampling

A

ppts selected based on their proportion in the population

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43
Q

strengths of stratified sampling

A

+avoids researcher bias
+representative

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44
Q

weakness of stratified sampling

A

-complete representation is not possible
-time consuming

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45
Q

describe opportunity sampling

A

ppts selected based on who is present when conducting the study

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46
Q

strengths of opportunity sampling

A

+saves time and effort
+less costly

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47
Q

weaknesses of opportunity sampling

A

-researcher bias
-unrepresentative of the target population

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48
Q

describe volunteer sampling

A

ppts are collected by asking people to take part in the study

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49
Q

strengths of volunteer sampling

A

+less likely to drop out
+easy and quick

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50
Q

weaknesses of volunteer sampling

A

-volunteer bias

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51
Q

describe a lab experiment

A

performed in a controlled environment, using standardised procedures with ppts randomly allocated to groups

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52
Q

strengths of lab experiments

A

+good control = easy to replicate
+cause and effect can be established
+gathers quantitative data

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53
Q

weaknesses of lab experiments

A

-artificial setting = low ecological validity
-ppts more likely to display demand characteristics

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54
Q

describe a field experiment

A

occur in real world settings, the IV is manipulated by the researcher and as many variables as possible are controlled

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55
Q

strengths of field experiments

A

+natural setting = ppt behaviour is more likely to be natural
+less chance of demand characteristics

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56
Q

weaknesses of field experiments

A

-ethical issues, ppts may not know they are in an experiment
-cannot control all variables, EVs may affect results

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57
Q

describe a natural experiment

A

the IV varies naturally, the experimenter does not manipulate it but measures the effect on the DV

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58
Q

strengths of natural experiments

A

+allows researchers to investigate a behaviour not normally allowed to be studied
+less chance of demand characteristics, ppts unaware they are in a study

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59
Q

weaknesses of natural experiments

A

-must wait for the IV to occur
-less control as the IV cannot be manipulated

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60
Q

describe a quasi experiment

A

the IV occurs naturally, the experimenter is unable to change the IV or randomly allocate ppts to conditions

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61
Q

strengths of quasi experiment

A

+allows researchers to investigate behaviour that wouldn’t normally be allowed to be studied
+can be some control of EVs

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62
Q

weaknesses of quasi experiments

A

-must wait for the IV to occur
-less control as the IV cannot be manipulated

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63
Q

describe naturalistic observations

A

the setting has not been manipulated, the set up is natural

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64
Q

strengths of naturalistic observations

A

+higher ecological validity
+natural, spontaneous behaviour

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65
Q

limitations of naturalistic observations

A

-less controlled, EVs could affect the results

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66
Q

describe controlled observations

A

some variables have been manipulated

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67
Q

strengths of controlled observations

A

+more controlled, can be certain that behaviour is due to the situation

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68
Q

limitations of controlled observations

A

-lower ecological validity
- ppts less likely to act in a natural way

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69
Q

describe covert observations

A

observations are made without the ppts knowledge

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70
Q

strengths of covert observations

A

+ppts will behave more naturally

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71
Q

limitations of covert observations

A

-ethical issues
-observers may misinterpret behaviour

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72
Q

describe overt observations

A

ppts are aware that they are being observed

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73
Q

strengths of overt observations

A

-avoids ethical issues

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74
Q

limitations of overt observations

A

-observer effect, ppts may alter behaviour as they know they are being watched

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75
Q

describe participant observations

A

observer is a ppt in the behaviour being observed

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76
Q

strengths of participant observations

A

-likely to better understand behaviour

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77
Q

limitations of participant observations

A

-observer bias, less objective, harder to record seen behaviour

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78
Q

describe non-participant observation

A

observer is not a ppt in the behaviour being observed

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79
Q

strengths of non-participant observations

A

+more objective, distanced from behaviour

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80
Q

describe structured observations

A

there are behavioural categories and/or sampling methods

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81
Q

strengths of structured observations

A

+improved inter observer reliability

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82
Q

limitations of structured observations

A

-observer bias, may see what they want to see

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83
Q

describe unstructured observations

A

there are no behavioural categories or sampling methods

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84
Q

strengths of unstructured observations

A

+useful when behaviour is unpredictable
+good as a pilot study to make categories

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85
Q

limitations of unstructured observations

A

-eye catching behaviours may not be the most relevant
-poor inter observer reliability, no established categories

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86
Q

define behavioural categories

A

a list of specific behaviours that are counted every time the behaviour occurs

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87
Q

describe time sampling

A

behaviour is recorded at fixed time intervals

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88
Q

strengths of time sampling

A

+shows time related changes in behaviour

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89
Q

weaknesses of time sampling

A

-behaviours can be missed when they happen between time intervals

90
Q

describe event sampling

A

behaviour is recorded every time it is seen

91
Q

strengths of event sampling

A

+useful when recording behaviours that don’t happen frequently

92
Q

weaknesses of event sampling

A

-behaviours may be missed if they are happening too frequently to count

93
Q

define inter observer reliability

A

a measure used to assess the degree to which different observers give consistent estimates to the same phenomenon

94
Q

how do you know if inter observer reliability is high

A

good inter observer reliability has a correlation of 0.8 or higher (strong positive)

95
Q

define a questionnaire

A

a set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts/feelings/opinions

96
Q

strengths of questionnaires

A

+cheap and quick way to gather a large amount of data
+can be completely privately/anonymously so responses are more likely to be honest

97
Q

weaknesses of questionnaires

A

-social desirability
-flawed if there are leading questions
-questions can be misunderstood

98
Q

what are the three types of interview

A

structured, semi-structured, unstructured

99
Q

describe structured interviews

A

a set list of questions to be answered, predetermined, in a fixed order, closed questions to generate quantitative data

100
Q

describe unstructured interviews

A

no set questions, more conversational, open-ended questions to generate qualitative data

101
Q

describe semi structured interviews

A

usually first question is pre-set, follow up questions are decided based on what has been said, most common type

102
Q

strengths of structured interviews

A

+easy to collect data
+easy to replicate and compare

103
Q

weaknesses of structured interviews

A

-does not allow for elaboration on answers, less qualitative data

104
Q

strengths of semi/unstructured interviews

A

+detail in specific areas

105
Q

weaknesses of semi/unstructured interviews

A

-difficult to replicate

106
Q

describe an interview

A

formal conversations between an interviewer and respondent where the interviewer leads a question-answer session

107
Q

define open questions

A

allow respondents to provide as much or as little as they wish in response to a question

108
Q

strengths of open questions

A

+insight into thoughts/feelings/opinions
+qualitative data

109
Q

weaknesses of open questions

A

-difficult to analyse

110
Q

define closed questions

A

respondents are given a set of predetermined responses

111
Q

strengths of closed questions

A

+can be analysed and compared
+quantitative data

112
Q

weaknesses of closed questions

A

-does not give insight into or reasons for responses

113
Q

what are the characteristics of good questionnaire questions

A

not leading (non-biased/judgmental), balance of open/closed

114
Q

describe focus group interviews

A

a qualitative approach where a group is interviewed together to gain an in-depth understanding

115
Q

strengths of focus group interviews

A

+more people interviewed in a shorter time

116
Q

weaknesses of focus group interviews

A

-some people may speak more than others
-some may conform to group ideas (social desirability bias)

117
Q

describe a correlation

A

correlations look at the relationship between variables

118
Q

define correlation coefficients

A

a figure calculated from a statistical test that determines the strength and direction of a relationship, on a scale from -1 to +1

119
Q

strengths of correlations

A

+good indication of how variables are related
+starting point to assess links between variables before an experiment
+economical, good use of secondary data
+predictions can be made
+quantification of relationships

120
Q

weaknesses of correlations

A

-no cause and effect
-possibility of untested/intervening variables causing the relationship
-often misinterpreted

121
Q

define case study

A

a longitudinal in-depth study of a person, group or event, usually of abnormal occurrence

122
Q

strengths of case studies

A

+provides rich, in-depth data
+suggests directions for further research
+allows investigations that might be difficult or unethical to do in other ways

123
Q

weaknesses of case studies

A

-problems generalising results to the wider population
-loss of detachment and objectivity
-difficult to replicate and time-consuming

124
Q

define informed consent

A

ppts know what to expect from the experiment and have agreed to take part

125
Q

dealing with informed consent

A

researchers must outline the study and ask ppts for consent. if unable to do this, researchers can get presumptive consent (how ppts would feel)

126
Q

define deception

A

researchers misleading or lying to ppts about a key aspect of the study

127
Q

dealing with deception

A

should be avoided, or ppts deceived as little as possible. should be revealed as soon as possible after

128
Q

define confidentiality

A

keeping ppts data anonymous and protected

129
Q

dealing with confidentiality

A

info about ppts should be kept in a locked, safe space and details kept anonymous

130
Q

define debrief

A

informing ppts about the experiment afterwards, answering questions and providing support if needed

131
Q

dealing with debrief

A

should take place as soon as possible after the research, explaining info and providing support resources

132
Q

define right to withdraw

A

ppts are allowed to remove themselves and/or their data at any point during research

133
Q

dealing with right to withdraw

A

ppts should not have pressure placed upon them to continue, should be aware that withdrawing is possible at any stage

134
Q

define protection from harm

A

ppts should not be subjected to any physical or mental distress

135
Q

dealing with protection from harm

A

harm must be no greater than in everyday life, vulnerable groups must receive special care. therapeutic debriefing can be used if distress has been caused

136
Q

define quantitative data

A

numerical data

137
Q

define qualitative data

A

descriptive data, usually about thoughts, opinions, feelings

138
Q

strengths of quantitative data

A

+easy to analyse and compare

139
Q

weaknesses of quantitative data

A

-not descriptive

140
Q

strengths of qualitative data

A

+descriptive, insight into behaviours

141
Q

weaknesses of qualitative data

A

-difficult to analyse

142
Q

define primary data

A

data collected first hand for the purpose of the study

143
Q

strengths of primary data

A

+more tailored to research

144
Q

weaknesses of primary data

A

-time consuming
-expensive

145
Q

define secondary data

A

data collected second hand, for another purpose/in another study

146
Q

strengths of secondary data

A

+cheaper
+time saving

147
Q

weaknesses of secondary data

A

-less tailored to research

148
Q

define meta analysis

A

collation of multiple pieces of research

149
Q

strengths of meta analysis

A

+increases validity, using a wide range of research

150
Q

weaknesses of meta analysis

A

-less suitable to research

151
Q

strengths of the mean

A

+valid measure

152
Q

limitations of the mean

A

-can be skewed by outliers
-decimal scores are meaningless

153
Q

strengths of the median

A

+cannot be skewed

154
Q

limitations of the median

A

-less representative, does not take in all numbers

155
Q

strengths of the mode

A

+cannot be skewed

156
Q

limitations of the mode

A

-crude measure
-isn’t always a mode

157
Q

strengths of the range

A

+easy to calculate

158
Q

limitations of the range

A

-not a very useful method
-doesn’t take much data into account

159
Q

define standard deviation

A

uses all the scores in data to calculate the spread of scores and how much each score deviates from the mean

160
Q

strengths of standard deviation

A

+all data taken into account
+precise measure of dispersion

161
Q

limitations of standard deviation

A

-can be affected by extreme values

162
Q

define peer review

A

the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality

163
Q

what are the three aims of peer review

A
  1. to allocate research funding
  2. to validate the quality and relevance of research
  3. to suggest amendments or improvements
164
Q

describe the method of peer review

A
  1. study is conducted, and a report created which is submitted for peer review
  2. the paper is sent to psychologists specialised in the same field as the paper who judge it on its credibility, validity, and appropriateness
  3. peers give feedback and make a recommendation of publication
165
Q

strengths of peer review

A

+maintains high standards in research
+contributes new knowledge to the field

166
Q

limitations of peer review

A

-if anonymity is not maintained, bias may affect feedback
-file drawer effect, only statistically significant findings are published

167
Q

describe the process of reporting psychological investigations

A

title, constants, abstract, introduction, aims, hypotheses, method, results, discussion, conclusion, references, appendices

168
Q

describe an abstract

A

summary of the study, outlines the aim, method, results, conclusion, written at the end of the report

169
Q

stats test table

A

nominal, related- sign test
ordinal, related- wilcoxon signed rank
interval, related- related t
nominal, unrelated- chi squared
ordinal, unrelated- mann-whitney
interval, unrelated- unrelated t
nominal, correlation- chi squared
ordinal, correlation- spearman rho
interval, correlation- pearson product

170
Q

what are the 3 types of distribution

A

normal, positive, negative

171
Q

describe normal distribution

A

the mean, median and mode are all similar values

172
Q

describe positive distribution

A

the mean, median and mode are pulled to the left with more of a tail to the right

173
Q

describe negative distribution

A

the mean, median and mode are pulled to the right with more of a tail to the left

174
Q

what reasons are there for skewed data?

A
  • difficulty of test
  • anomalous results
  • sample/question bias
175
Q

what does p<0.05 mean (in terms of level of significance)?

A

there is a 5% or less chance that a factor other than the IV has caused the results, we can be 95% sure that the IV directly affects the DV

176
Q

why do we choose a 5% level of significance?

A

good compromise- not too lenient (not left to chance) or too strict (findings can be accepted as significant)

177
Q

explain type 1 errors

A

margin is too lenient, results show a false positive, alt hypothesis has been accepted when it should have been null

178
Q

explain type 2 errors

A

margin is too strict, results show a false negative, null hypothesis accepted when it should have been alt

179
Q

what are the three types of inferential statistics data?

A

nominal, ordinal and interval

180
Q

describe nominal data

A

named categories, not much detail, MODE

181
Q

describe ordinal data

A

rank ordered, vague, MEDIAN

182
Q

describe interval data

A

scientific measurement, each unit is the same size, MEAN

183
Q

how to do a sign test?

A
  1. work out if positive or negative difference between 2 data sets
  2. exclude any 0 difference
  3. count the number of positive and negative signs
  4. take the smallest value as the calculated value
184
Q

what do you need to find the critical value?

A

-direction of hypothesis
-number of ppts (degrees of freedom)
-level of significance

185
Q

what may affect number of participants/data sources when identifying critical values?

A

-any ppts excluded for having 0 difference
-degrees of freedom in chi squared, related/unrelated and pearson’s test

186
Q

degrees of freedom formula- chi squared

A

df = (rows in table - 1) x (columns in table - 1)

187
Q

what correlation co-efficient is a reliable result?

A

0.8+

188
Q

define inter observer reliability

A

two researchers using the same interview format, equipment or observation schedule should obtain the same results

189
Q

describe how to check inter observer reliability

A
  1. decide behavioural categories together
  2. observe the same behaviour at the same time
  3. compare results of observation
  4. stats test to determine correlation
190
Q

define test-retest

A

a method to test external reliability, same test is done by same people twice at different times, if results correlate then the test is valid

191
Q

describe test-retest method

A

uses the same instrument on two different occasions with the same people
to check results, complete a correlation via a stats test (spearman’s or pearson’s)

192
Q

define reliability

A

measuring variables consistently and getting the same results

193
Q

define internal reliability

A

the consistency of a measure within itself

194
Q

define external reliability

A

the consistency of a procedure from one occasion to the next

195
Q

define validity

A

whether the items in an assessment are measuring what they are supposed to measure

196
Q

define internal validity

A

whether the IV has had an effect on the DV, or if it is due to EVs

197
Q

define external validity

A

the extent to which findings are generalisable beyond the research itself

198
Q

what are the three types of external validity

A

ecological, population, temporal

199
Q

define ecological validity

A

whether results obtained in an experiment can be extended to real life settings

200
Q

define population validity

A

whether findings from a sample can be generalised to other types of people

201
Q

define temporal validity

A

whether findings can be generalised to other time periods

202
Q

define face validity

A

the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed as covering the concept it claims to measure (does it look valid)

203
Q

define concurrent validity

A

a new measure is tested against a well-established one, correlation value between them determines validity

204
Q

what are the 4 key features of a science

A

empirical methods, control, replicability, objectivity

205
Q

define empirical methods

A

all knowledge should be gathered from direct, sensory experience

206
Q

define control (features of a science)

A

controlling EVs in order to establish causation

207
Q

define replicability

A

the ability to be consistent in measurement and results in order to draw conclusions from research

208
Q

define objectivity

A

no personal biases which may impact data or behaviour of participants

209
Q

what are the features of the scientific method

A

theory construction, hypothesis testing, falsifiability, paradigms

210
Q

define hypothesis testing

A

the process of testing theories and hypotheses via deductive processes such as experiments

211
Q

define theory construction

A

the process of creating and refining a theory based on inductive processes such as observation

212
Q

define falsifiability

A

the ability to prove/disprove a theory/idea based on scientific data or experimentation

213
Q

define paradigms

A

belief that a subject can only be called a science if the majority of its workers agree with a common global theory

214
Q

what characterises the normal science phase of a paradigm

A

paradigm has been established, theory proposed that explains facts and unites field, researchers explore paradigm

215
Q

what are the phases of developing a paradigm

A

pre science, normal science, scientific revolution

216
Q

what characterises the scientific revolution phase of a paradigm

A

vast amounts of testing, evidence to contradict paradigm, new paradigm established

217
Q

describe the steps of theory construction

A
  1. make observations
  2. produce laws/theories
  3. generate hypothesis
  4. test with experiments
  5. reject/refine theory
218
Q

describe the inductive process

A

begins with a set of empirical observations, seeking patterns in observations and then theorising about patterns (steps 1-3 theory construction)

219
Q

describe the deductive process

A

begins with a theory, developing hypothesis from theory, collecting and analysing data to test hypothesis (steps 4 and 5 of theory construction)

220
Q

define descriptive statistics

A

data analysed to show patterns and trends, not significance

221
Q

define inferential statistics

A

data analysed to work out statistical significance- if results are dependable or due to chance

Psychology (9 decks)

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