Research Methods Flashcards
(36 cards)
Name the 3 levels of analysis observed by Kluckhohn & Murray (1948) & their corresponding research methods
Nomothetic
- like ALL others
- like SOME others
* Research methods used are correlation & experimental studies
Idiographic
- like NO other
* Research method used is case studies
The 3 levels of analysis observed by Kluckhohn & Murray demonstrate different outcomes in that they each answer different questions about..
Like ALL others - human nature
Like SOME others - individual differences and group differences
Like NO other - individual uniqueness
Like ALL others means to enquire into?
Human nature: focused on making generalisations about human species regardless of background, sex, culture etc. (refers to thoughts, feelings and behaviours that are universal to most, if not all human beings
Evolutionary theories tend to focus on?
The human nature level of analysis
- Darwin would argue that it makes evolutionary sense that humans would want to belong to social groups as these alliances increase one’s chance of survival in hostile environments and increase the opportunity for reproduction. Overtime this adoptive trait is inherited and passed through the generations until it becomes a characteristic of the human species
Like SOME others means to enquire into?
Individual differences: any psychological characteristic can be seen as a continuum. It is therefore possible to make generalisations about different people at different points on the continuum.
* some people score very low on the trait of agreeableness (irritable and suspicious)
* some people score very high (helpful and trusting )
Group differences: are when we make generalisations about the way people in one group differ from people in another group (on a continuum)
* most common examples include different cultures, age groups and sex differences
Like NO other refers to?
Individual uniqueness; no two people ever have the same experiences or genetic makeup so it is always to some degree a distortion to see them in common terms, or even classify them as varying along common dimensions such as agreeableness
What is the case study method ?
- The case study is used to develop an in-depth description of an individual
- This in-depth analysis can be based on a number of different sources of information, including personal interviews, direct observation, psychometric tests, archival records and documents (e.g., personal letters)
- Case studies are generally single-case design, but they can use multiple cases.
What are the 3 main strengths of the case study method?
- It can provide in-depth knowledge of a particular individual, for example in 1943 the OSS requested Walter Langer conduct a psych analysis of Adolf Hitler. Langer’s conclusions became an important reference for Allied leaders.
- It maybe the only practical way to study rare phenomena - such as individuals with photographic memory, multiple personalities, or the so called idiot savant.
- The in-depth analysis of an individual can be used to formulate general insights about human conduct - that can then be subject to nomothetic research.
* Case studies by clinicians have played an important role in the development of some major theories of personality - Freud, Jung, Adler, Erikson, Kelly, Rogers ..
Case study method limitations: Discuss confirmatory bias & selectivity.
In case studies we have to decide how to present an individual’s story; we have to subjectively decide, post hoc, what data to focus on and what to ignore.
- A Study in Psychosexuality (Freud 1947) is a great example. Freud had access to other passages by Leonardo da Vinci, but decided to focus on a dream passage that Freud in turn interpreted as the reason for Leonardo’s homosexuality. The passage was interpreted by Freud as mentioning a vulture which in ancient Egyptian mythology represents the mother. Leonard does make reference to a bird of prey, but a kite, not a vulture.
This kind of selectivity raises enormous potential for confirmatory bias (I.e., favouring information that confirms existing beliefs, expectations or hypotheses).
Discuss the sample size limitation of the case study & some examples.
Because the case study is usually small and idiosyncratic, there is no way to establish that the data is representative of some larger population - therefore, conclusions must be limited to those who participated in the study.
* In the clinical domain, many case study participants come to the attention of personality theorists when they seek out psychotherapy, often because they do feel atypical.
* Clinically inspired theories of personality tend to be restricted to theories of maladjustment (usually theories of anxiety)
* These theories of maladjustment may not generalise well to all individuals
Case study method: Limitations - there are many research questions that cannot be addressed by the case study method - discuss the main points
- Personality theories derived from case study, often tend to overemphasise particular periods or specific events - i.e., the critical period fallacy or eventism
- Factors that are not associated with a particular time period or event are likely to be overlooked when using the case study method - for instance the question of how genetic factors shape our personality is one that cannot be addressed through case study (case study focuses on life events)
What is the correlational method used for?
Used to describe the relationships among naturally occurring variables i.e., without imposing manipulations.
The correlational approach in personality psych is commonly used in one of two ways. These are?
- To test descriptive theories by examining the relationship between various personality traits (are impulsivity and sociability correlated?)
- To test casual theories by examining the relationships between personality and behaviour (e.g. are extroversion and skin conductance correlated?)
Distributions that show the relationship between 2 variables are called?
Bivariate distributions
Bivariate distributions are typically displayed…… which provides an indication of what two things?
A scatter plot which indicates the strength and direction of the relationship.
In correlational analysis, the strength of the relationship between two variables in the scatter plot is defined by?
The degree of linearity
What is Cohen & Cohen’s (1975) general rule of thumb for psychology significance?
r+|~ .10 Small
r+|~ .30 Medium
r+|~ .50 Large
If 2 variables = r .50 then what is the effect size and what does the effect size represent?
r2 = .25
The effect size represents the amount of shared variance. Meaning 25% of the variance in Y scores can be accounted for by the variation in X scores
In the aftermath of WWII, efforts were taken by researchers to establish those personality traits associated with blind obedience to authority. What 9 traits did Adorno et al. (1950) identify?
- Blind allegiance to conventional beliefs about right and wrong
- Respect for or submission to acknowledge authority
- Belief in aggression towards those who do not subscribe to conventional thinking, or who are different
- A negative view of people in general - i.e., the belief that people would lie, cheat, steal if given the opportunity
- A need for strong leadership which displays uncompromising power
- A belief in simple answers and polemics - e.g the media controls us all - the source of all our problems is the loss of morals these days
- Resistance to creative, dangerous ideas. A black and white worldview
- A tendency to project one’s feelings of inadequacy, rage and fear onto a scapegoated group
- A preoccupation with violence and sex
Correlational Method: Strengths - Why is personality research largely correlational?
Many aspects of personality and behaviour cannot be studied under rigorously controlled laboratory conditions for practical and ethical reasons. I’m such cases correlational research is the only option.
The potential limitations of correlational research centre on the extent which causal action can be isolated. Identify the 2 main limitations.
- The direction of causation is not always clear
- A third unspecified variable may be causal
Give an example of how correlational research does not always give a clear indication as to which personality traits can be said to have causal primacy.
Does being high on anti-social tendencies lead to poorer educational and employment opportunities and therefore lower income (trait primacy), or does being in a poorly paid job lead one to develop anti-social tendencies (situational primacy)?
The argument that correlational research is simply descriptive and incapable of isolating causal action can be refuted in what circumstances?
The direction of causation can be established when it is shown that an invariable time sequence of x followed by y exists.
Give an example of a correlational design that allows for the direction of causation to be established.
A Longitudinal study: where a group of 10 year olds, all with high cognitive ability at the start of the study & all of middle class background. If antisocial behaviour is found to be related to low income as tested at age 50 than the antisocial behavioural trait is of primacy & causality is supported.
