research methods

Question 1

lab experiment

Answer 1

where the iv is directly manipulated in a highly controlled artificial environment
+- got control over extraneous variables (situational variables ), scientific, predictable, reliable - test-retest- repeat- external- replicate, internal- control/standardisation
– lacks ecological validity, demand characteristics, lack of construct validity.

Question 2

field experiment

Answer 2

where the iv is directly manipulated in a natural environment with some level of control
+- high in ecological validity, less chance of demand characteristics, population if sample represents where its studied
– higher chance of extraneous variables, harder to test cause and effect, less scientific, harder to get consent, harder to replicate

Question 3

quasi experiement

Answer 3

a naturally occurring iv that is not directly manipulated in either controlled or natural environment
+- more ethical, nothing manipulated , natural behaviour
–difficult to carry out as iv already exists , time consuming , extraneous variables likely - less reliable.

Question 4

what is an experimental method in general (+/-)

Answer 4

manipulating IVs to test cause and effect so the hypothesis can be tested.
+- more scientific, objective ( measuring behaviour) (data)
– demand characteristics

Question 5

structured observation (+/-)

Answer 5

predefined behaviour categories.
+- easier to record, easier to establish inter-rater reliability.
– reductionist, reduce validity, observer bias, can’t access thoughts and feelings

Question 6

unstructured observation (+/-)

Answer 6

no predefined plan they record everything.
+- increases construct validity, wide range of context.
– harder to record, hard to establish reliability- lack of control- no time/even sampling, observer bias, lacks external reliability

Question 7

controlled observation(+/-)

Answer 7

a research method where researchers watch participants in an artificial environment
+- increases reliability
–lowers ecological validity

Question 8

naturalistic observation (+/-)

Answer 8

takes place in natural environment
+- less demand characteristics/ high EV
–low in reliabilty

Question 9

participant observation(+/-)

Answer 9

where the researcher takes part in the experimt and activites.
+-, greater accuracy/detail, sometimes only way eg .gang
– ethical issues, reduces validity if behaviours influenced

Question 10

non participant observation (+/-)

Answer 10

the researcher doesn’t take part.
+- remains objective, no influence on behaviour
–can’t observe certain behaviour, less detail/accuracy

Question 11

overt observation(+/-)

Answer 11

participants are aware they are being watched.
+- more ethical ( consent)
– risk of demand characteristics/ decreases validity

Question 12

covert observation(+/-)

Answer 12

participants are unaware they are being watched
+- less chance of demand characteristics/ increases validity - natural behaviour, event/time sampling to increase reliability
–less ethical ,they can’t consent

Question 13

event sampling (+/-)

Answer 13

every occurrence of behaviour as specified on predefined checklist. observed at specified time.
+- quantitative data, easier to record
– reductionist, reduce validity, observer bias.
(similar to structured )

Question 14

what is time sampling ? (+/-)

Answer 14

behaviour on predetermined checklist recorded at specific time intervals.
+- reliable - track behaviour- spot patterns
– time consuming, lowers validity as behaviour may be missed.

Question 15

what is an observation

Answer 15

where researcher observes and records participants behaviour, but does not manipulate any variables
(can be use for a correlation )

Question 16

target population

Answer 16

the audience a piece of research is generalised to from the sample

Question 17

sample

Answer 17

group of participants that are representative of a target population

Question 18

alternate hypothesis (h1)

Answer 18

there will be a difference.

Question 19

null hypothesis (h0)

Answer 19

there is no difference

Question 20

one tailed hypothesis

Answer 20

iv-dv-iv directional ( one will be higher/less than the other iv )

Question 21

two-tailed hypothesis

Answer 21

there will/will not be a difference
non-directional

Question 22

correlational one- tailed hypothesis

Answer 22

there is a positive/ negative correlation between x and y

Question 23

two-tailed correlational hypothesis

Answer 23

there is a relationship between x and y

Question 24

how is data obtained for a correlation

Answer 24

secondary or primary but co-variables must be continuous - range of values but a fixed order e.g., scale

Question 25

extraneous variable

Answer 25

something that is not the iv but CAN affect the dv through lack of control.

Question 26

confounding variable

Answer 26

something that not an iv but DOES affect the dv through lack of control

Question 27

types of extraneous variables

Answer 27

individual differences( age, gender, culture) situational variables ( environment )

Question 28

conditions and two types?

Answer 28

'groups of IV ' control , experimental

Question 29

repeated measures ( +/-) (within groups)

Answer 29

same participants used in all conditions +- any changes in conditions are likely due to IV not participant less individual differences - sample sample - easier /quicker -- more chance of demand characteristics/order effects can be overcome by counterbalancing - making half do condition A first then half do condition B first

Question 30

independent measures (+/-) (between groups)

Answer 30

participants only take part in one condition +-task variable, less chance of order effects/ demand characteristics -- more individual differences any change to condition is more likely due to participant variables need more participants can be dealt with random allocations to condition - participant variables don't cluster in one group

Question 31

matched pairs measure (+/-)

Answer 31

recruit participants and match them based on characteristics +- individual differences controlled for , avoids order effects -- time consuming (have to be observed/tested before matching), doesn't match all variables only ones relevant

Question 32

opportunity sampling (+/-)

Answer 32

researcher chooses the most convenient people to the study. +- easiest, less time to locate sample. -- biased sample as selected from limited geographical areas, not very representative of target population

Question 33

random sampling (+/-)

Answer 33

every member in target population ahs equal chance of being chosen as names are pulled out a hat. +- no bias as all have equal chance -- difficult and time consuming- contact them and see if they want to take part , representative sample not guaranteed.

Question 34

snowball sampling (+/-)

Answer 34

researcher selects a person then they ask the person if they know anyone willing to take part within the target population. process continues. +- possible to include members where no lists/identifiable clusters exists eg. criminals who aren't easy to access. -- biased as sample drawn from small part of target population

Question 35

self-selecting sampling (+/-)

Answer 35

people will volunteer themselves to take part in the research. +- gives a wide range of ppts, convenient, ethical as leads to informed consent, less likely to drop out if they volunteered -- unrepresentative as leads to bias sample because they won't respond unless they have an interest so may lead to demand characteristics.

Question 36

What is nominal data

Answer 36

Categorical data- frequency table eh number of … A questionnaire with closed questions so generally a number of how many times something has occurred. Usually a smaller table

Question 37

What is a +/- of nominal data and what measure of central tendency is it ?

Answer 37

The mode: +- Quickest, easy to generate from closed questions, increase reliability. - - superficial

Question 38

What is a +/- of ordinal data and what measure of central tendency is it ?

Answer 38

Median : +- more info, takes into account anomalies - -time consuming, doesn't reflect all values

Question 39

What is ordinal data

Answer 39

Scale: data ranked or ordered form biggest to smallest, usually a bigger table

Question 40

What is interval data

Answer 40

The divisions are equal and fixed like time, weight ,height ,temperature.

Question 41

What is a +/- of interval data and what measure of central tendency is it

Answer 41

Mean : +-Scientific, comparable, more reliable , reflects all data - - abstract method may not use a fixed measure, anomalous result may affect results significantly.

Question 42

What is level of significance ( what%)

Answer 42

This determines whether we accept or reject the null hypothesis. Our results will have an observed value that we compare to the criptic value that we don’t calculate(95%) If the probability is less than or equal to 0.05 (95% confident ) we accept the null. The 5% may be fluke or extraneous variables.

Question 43

what ethical considerations come under the principle: respect.

Answer 43

confidentiality, right to withdraw, informed consent, equality- gender, ethnicity.

Question 44

what ethical considerations come under the principle: competence (the ability to do something successfully )

Answer 44

no ethical issue but it is about professionalism, recognising ethical issues, peer review.

Question 45

what ethical considerations come under the principle: responsibility

Answer 45

psychological harm ,debriefing

Question 46

what ethical considerations come under the principle: integrity ( the quality of being honest)

Answer 46

deception, inappropriate relationship

Question 47

what is an open question (+/-)

Answer 47

no pre-determined response, can express opinion so we find out why. discuss, outline, why. +- high in construct validity- detail -- hard to analyse and spot trends/patterns- reach conclusion

Question 48

what are closed questions (+/-)

Answer 48

pre-determined response (include answer in example) +- easy to analyse and interpret - make conclusions if patterns spotted -- don't find out why so lacks construct validity. oversimplifies reality of humans experiences

Question 49

what is a Likert scale and what does it do.

Answer 49

how far do you agree/ disagree. gain opinion and numbers.

Question 50

what is a rating scale and what does it do (+/-)

Answer 50

on a scale of eg. 1-5 numbers only. +- objective ways to represent feelings, produce quantitative data data- easy to analyse - don't get to find out why- lacks construct- and may avoid ends of scale which isn't representative

Question 51

what is a semantic differential scale and what does it does.

Answer 51

opposing adjectives. usually moved electronically. flexible dynamic scale- opinion. eg. l11l11l

Question 52

strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires

Answer 52

+- quicker with a large sample- more consistent more ethical as is kept confidential so more likely to answer truthfully if anonymous , increases reliability- split half method -- social desirability greater chance of leading questions- low construct

Question 53

strengths and weaknesses of interviews

Answer 53

+- less chance of social desirability. -- less ethical as they see them and take a name so isn't confidential. -- takes longer with a large sample.

Question 54

what is a structured interview (+/-)

Answer 54

pre-determined set of questions in professional environment. +- more reliable- asked the same questions- can use split half easy to repeat, easy to analyse -- more chance of social desirability

Question 55

what is an unstructured interview (+/-)

Answer 55

no pre-determined set of questions it can be like a conversation. +- less chance of social desirability. -- more detail - follow interests of individual -- less reliable, hard to analyse. - well-trained interviewer - don't ask leading questions

Question 56

what is a semi-structured interview (+/-)

Answer 56

some pre-determined questions but some relation to conversation. +- more detail but is reliable as there is some consistency making it valid. -- social desirability.

Question 57

what is a strength of interviews

Answer 57

people can ask if they are confused.

Question 58

what is meant by validity

Answer 58

how trustworthy the procedure is . does the research set out to measure what it was meant to measure.

Question 59

what is internal validity

Answer 59

look how specifically in the study behaviour was measured.

Question 60

what is external validity

Answer 60

(generalisability) outside of the study where we can generalise it to.

Question 61

what is face validity (in)

Answer 61

does something look like it will measure what it is supposed to.

Question 62

what is construct validity (in)

Answer 62

does the measure relate to assumed characteristics of what is being assessed.

Question 63

what is concurrent validity (in)

Answer 63

one test correlates well with a measure that's previously been tested.

Question 64

what is criterion validity (in)

Answer 64

to extent to which a measure can predict the performance or behaviour of measured thing.

Question 65

what is ecological validity (EX)

Answer 65

whether it generalises to a real world environment outside of the study. external is high in mundane realism- in the middle can argue both.

Question 66

what is population validity (EX)

Answer 66

is the sample representative of wider target population. beliefs.

Question 67

what is reliability

Answer 67

how consistent a piece of research is. can you get the same again ?

Question 68

what is internal reliability

Answer 68

high levels of control in the study as things are kept the same- standardisation.

Question 69

what is external reliability

Answer 69

is their consistency outside of the study at different times/places.

Question 70

what is inter-rater reliability

Answer 70

two or more people agree on the results of the research. consensus of average 0.8

Question 71

what do you get with high and low levels of control

Answer 71

high- extraneous variables. low- demand characteristics/ less natural behaviour.

Question 72

ways of getting high/low levels of internal reliability

Answer 72

high- lab experiment, controlled/covert observation, questionnaire eg .same questions, structured interview low- observation, self-report - can't be the same if repeated as is opinion.

Question 73

ways of getting high/low levels of external reliability

Answer 73

high- big samples- more consistent as can replicate more people. low- time differences (longitudinal) attrition affect?

Question 74

what is the split half method

Answer 74

comes from self-report. two halves of questions are similar so we can assume the test is reliable. eg. asking a repeat question but wording it differently

Question 75

what is the test-reset method

Answer 75

experiment test them more than once eg. start/end of month to see if attitudes are different.

Question 76

what are type 1 errors

Answer 76

false positive we accept the alternate but should have accepted the null rather than rejecting it. we assume results were down to iv but it was down to chance this may be because the p-value is to lenient like p<0.10

Question 77

what are type 11 errors

Answer 77

false negative we reject the alternate when we should have accepted it. assume results were down to chance but they were down to IV. this may be because p-value is to stringent (tight/strict) but sometimes this is necessary in the medical industry.

Question 78

what is meant by hypothesis testing

Answer 78

predicting if the manipulation of the isolated variables will affect the DV. if there is a difference predicted- alternative hypothesis, prediction of no difference is null hypothesis directional - one tailed , non-directional - two tailed

Question 79

what is meant by falsification

Answer 79

find something to refute theory - argue against it - prove there theory wrong e.g. Freud - unfalsifiable as he looks for behaviour to support theory

Question 80

what is meant by induction

Answer 80

scientific reasoning - observing a behaviour to then make a theory after tentative hypothesis was made to develop theory to undergo further empirical investigation

Question 81

what are examples of cultural, individual and social diversity factors

Answer 81

individual- age/gender/height/weight/disposition/ ethnicity social- class, societal roles e.g. job role/sector culture- values, country, morals

Question 82

what is a strength and weakness of behaviour codes

Answer 82

+-same behaviour looked for- standardised - easy to spot patterns - get inter-rater reliability -- doesn't cover all possible behaviour- not everything recorded - low construct validity

Question 83

what are +/- of using an observation

Answer 83

+-can provide in depth information about behaviour - not relying on self report - see natural behaviour - can't access thoughts and feelings, observer bias - look for what they expect

Question 84

what are +/- of correlation

Answer 84

+- more ethical- no manipulation of variables - study topics that would be sensitive to manipulate test relationships between continuous data not differences- predict +- if correlation is strong further research can be done- good preliminary method - harder to test-cause and effect -easy to make false conclusion just because there is a relationship doesn't mean its cause- could be intervening variables - hard to test which is causing which - can be affected by outliers - affects coefficient- conclusion changed

Question 85

what graph is used for a correlation

Answer 85

scatter graph- shows correlation between 2 co-variables

Question 86

how do we measure extent of a correlation

Answer 86

Correlation co-efficient between -1 and 1 - perfect positive -1 is perfect negative +/- tells us if it is positive or negative number tells us how closely related the variables are 1- perfect 0.8 - strong 0.5- moderate 0.3- weak 0.1- weak

Question 87

what does it mean to operationalise a variable

Answer 87

defined in a way they can be easily tested

Question 88

why do we use behaviour codes

Answer 88

it is difficult to identify different and separate behaviours - our perception of behaviour is often continuous and not a series of separate behavioural components

Question 89

examples of extraneous variables

Answer 89

participant - age/ intelligence situational- time of day/ distracting noise, location

Question 90

how to overcome researcher bias and researcher effect

Answer 90

bias- designer of study shouldn't be same as conductor- look for things to support research effect- peer review - analysis could be inaccurate- someone else's opinion

Question 91

what is the range (+/-)

Answer 91

subtract highest from lower +1 +- easy to calculate -- affected by extreme values -- only takes into account 2 values

Question 92

what is variance (+/-)

Answer 92

standard deviation but not square rooted spread around the mean +- precise - all values taken into account -- could hide extreme values

Question 93

what is primary data (+/-)

Answer 93

data collected by a researcher specifically for study +- data fits aim - specific researcher has control- ensures accuracy - not out of date -- lengthy/expensive , researcher could be biased

Question 94

what is secondary data (+/-)

Answer 94

using data that is already been collected by someone else +- cheaper, quicker, access large sample -- can't control how it was measured, may not align with study, could be outdated

Question 95

when is a bar chart used

Answer 95

categorical data/ nominal data - frequency of categories

Question 96

when is a histogram used

Answer 96

continuous data- not categories

Question 97

what does a normal distribution show and where is mean median and mode

Answer 97

most of scores clustered around the mean, median and mode - all mid-point symmetrical bell shape more people at bottom than top where smaller standard deviation

Question 98

what is a positive skew

Answer 98

bunched to left mode is on left, mean is furthest to right

Question 99

what is negative skew

Answer 99

bunched to the right mean on left mode on right

Question 100

what does this symbol mean ~

Answer 100

approximate

Question 101

what is the significance level

Answer 101

probability at which it is agreed to reject null hypothesis - usually 0.05