Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
define experimental method
A
- concerns the manipulation of an independent variable to have an effect on the dependent variable which is measured and stated in results.
2
Q
Define independent and dependent variable
A
- DV: the factor measured by researchers in an investigation.
- IV: the factor manipulated by researchers in an investigation.
3
Q
define operationalisation of variables
A
- the process of defining variables into measurable factors.
- Without it, results will be unreliable and could not be replicated to check their validity, however only one aspect of a variable is being measured.
4
Q
Define **extraneous **variables and how they differ from confounding vairables.
A
- variables other than the IV that might affect the DV. They are controllled so that they do not vary acroess any of the experimental conditions or between participants.
- Confounding variables are uncontrolled extraneous variables that affet the DV thus negatively affect results.
5
Q
Give the three main types of extraneous variables.
A
-
Participant variables: concerns factors such as participants’ age and intelligence.
2.Situational variables: concern the experimental setting and surrounding environment e.g. temperature. - Experimenter variables: concern changes in the personality, appearance and conduct of the researcher e.g male vs female researchers.
6
Q
define demand characteristics
one way it is reduced
A
- features of a piece of research whihch allow the participants to work out its aim/hypotheses.
- Participants may then change their behaviour and so frustrate the aim of the research.
- the single-blind procedure is a technique tht reduces DC as it invovles participants having no idea which condition of a study they are in.
7
Q
what are investigator effects?
A
- A research effect where researcher features influence participants’ responses e.g.:
- physical characteristics: age, ethinicity or gender : male participnts may be more uniwilling to admit sexist views to female researchers.
- less obvious personal characteristics , accent or tone.
- investigatord may be unconceiously biased in their interpretation of data and find whay they expect to find.
8
Q
How to reduce investigator effects?
A
- the double blind procedure is a technique to redice investigator effects , which involves neither pariticpants not investigators knowing which condition particiapnts are in.
- This prevents investigators from unconciosuy giving pariticapnts clues as tp which condition there in , reducing demand characteristics.
9
Q
what are laboratory experiements
A
- experiments performed in a controlled environment, using standardised procedure, with particiapnts randomly allocated to experimental groups.
10
Q
Outline the advantages of lab experiments
A
- High degree of control : experimenters control all variables and the IV and DV are precisely operationalised and measured, leading to greater accuracy.
- Replication.
- Cause and effect relationship can be determined: All other variables are controlled, the effect must be caused soley by the manipulation of the IV.
- Isolation of variables.
11
Q
Outline the weaknesses of laboratory experiments.
A
- Experimenter bias expectations can affect results and this may influence expectations.
- Problems operationalising the IV and DV.
- Low external (ecological) validity: high degrees of control make situations aritifican and unlike real life.
- Demand characteristics: Participants are aware theyr’re being tested and so may unconciously alter their behaviour.
12
Q
What is a field experiment?
A
- experiment conducted in a naturalistic environment where the researchers manipulate the independent variable.
- e.g. bickman
13
Q
give the strengths of a field experiment
A
- high ecological validity: behaviour is natural as it occurs in a normal environment
- no demand characteristics : unaware of experiment
14
Q
What is a natural experiment?
A
- the IV occurs naturally and is not manipulated, but records the effect on the DV.
- random alloation of participants is not possible.
15
Q
give the strengths of a natural experiment
A
- allows research in areas that may be unethical to control
- high in external validity as example of real world behaviour , free from demand characteristics
16
Q
give the weaknesses of field and natural experiments
A
- less control: makes it difficult to establish extraneous variables , so causality is harder to establish , as effect of dv cannot be isolated
- replication: conditions cannot be replicated
- ethics: unaware that they are in an experiment incurring a lack of informed consent
- sample bias: no random allocation so samples may not be comprable and results representative
17
Q
What is the Quasi experiment?
A
- The researcher is unable to freely manipulate the independent variable
- often because IV is an innate characteristic e.g. gender , age , income
- random allocation of participants to different conditions is not possible.
18
Q
Outline the advantages of field and natural experiments
A
- High ecological validity: Due to the real world environment, results relate to everyday behaviour and can be generalised to other settings.
- No demand characteristics.
19
Q
Outline the weaknesses of the field and natural experiments.
A
- Less control: it is more difficult to control extraneous variables, so causality is harder to establish.
- Replication: difficult to repeat as conditions are not the exact same.
- Ethics: When unawate that they are in an experiment, it incurs a lack of informed consent.
- Sample bias: not random allocation so samples may not be comparable to each other.
20
Q
define observation
A
- a non-experimental technique were the researcher watches and record natural behaviour of participants without manipulating levels of IV.
- a controlled observation is when aspects of the environment are controlled often in lab setting
21
Q
Describe a naturalistic observation and evaluate.
A
- recording of natural events
- high realism: external validity , more generalisable
- extraneous variables : lower internal validity
22
Q
Outline covert and overt observational techniques.
A
overt: where participants are aware they are being observed.
covert: where participants remain unaware of being observed
23
Q
evaluate overt covert techniques
weakness of one is strength of other
A
- ethical as the principle of informed consent means partipants agree to take part in the research
- demand characteristics are likely or social desirability bias ( “ try too look good”
24
Q
A
25
Outline the two different types of observational techniques
1. Particiapnt observation: involves researchers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more 'hands on perspective.
2. Non-participant observation: involves researchers recording observations seperate from the participants
26
evaluate participant and non observation
| eval is twofold
- taking part : the researcher may build rapport, more trust and comfort; greater detailed obserrvation
- can lose objectivity ; interpretation of bheaviour is biased
27
Outline the weaknesses of observational techniques.
- cause and efect : causality can not be inferred , since variables are not manipulated , and there is little control of extraeous variables.
- Observer bias: May see what they want to see , can be reduced by establishing inter-observer reliability.
- Replication : lack of control over variables means conditions can never be repaeated exactyly to check the results.
- Ethics: If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of pricacy and informed consent arise.
- Practical problems: It can be difficult to remain and unobserved and there can be problems recording behaviour.
28
How are behavioural categories used in observational studies?
- observers use grids or coding systems to record behaviour, with categories that reflect the focus of the studye.g. age and sex effects on driving speed.
29
How can behaviours be coded or rated in observational studies.
- coding can involve numbers or letters to represent characteristiccs (e.g. M for male) and behaviour ca be rated on scales e.g. 1-5 for 'safe driving@.
30
What are behavioural categories?
- Dividing target behaviours into subsets using coding systems that match the focus of the study.
31
Give the 2 types of sampling procedures used in observational studies.
Event sampling: Couning the number of times a behaviour occurs in a targer individual or group.
Time sampling: Counting behaviour within a set time frame (e.g. every 30 seconds).
32
What is inter-observer reliability?
- Where observers consistently code behaviour in the same way.
- Lessens the chance of observer bias , where an observer sees and records behavior in a subjective way.
-
33
Define self-report techniques
- participants reveals information about themselves without researcher interference.
- in response to a series of questions
34
What are questionnaires and describe the difference between closed and open questions?
- self-report method where participants record their own answers to a pre-set list of questions.
- closed: involve yes/no answers. - Easy to quantify but restrict participant's answers.
- Open: allow participants to answer in their own words.. More difficult to anlayse , but allow freedom of expression and greater depth of answers.
35
Outline the advanatges of questionnares
- Quick: compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
- Lack of investigator effects: Questionnaers can be completed without researchers present.
- Quantitative and qualititative analyses : closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide richer fuller detail.
- Replication: as questionnares use standardised questions, they are easy to replicate.
36
Outline the weaknesses of questionnares.
- Misunderstanding: participants may misinterpret questions. There can also be problems with technical terms , emotive language and leading questions.
- Biased samples: questionnares are suitable for people who are willing to fill in questionnares and not be respresentative of the whole population.
- low response rates: uneconomical method as they can get very low return rates.
- superficial issues: not suitable for topics which require deep understanding.
- social desirability/idealised answer: pariticpants may lie in order to give ansers expected of them or may give answers that relfect how they would like to be , rather than how they actually are.
37
Describe the way questionnares and interviewers should be structured
- avoid complex terminology to prevent guessing and inaccuracy
- prevent leading questions: these bias the responses in one direction. questions should not feel like they have a correct response.
- piloting questions: run a small scale version of the interview to identify confusing , or useless responses. - these can then be changd
- fillwe questions: add to build rapport, act as red herrings to hide research aims, and reduce demand chaacteristics.
38
what are interviews and outline the three main types.
- Self-report method where particiapants answer questions in face to face situations
- 1. Structured: involves identical closed Qs being read to pariticapnts with the interviewer writing down answers.
- 2. Unstructured: involves an informal discussion on a particular topic. Can ask follow-up qs.
- 3. Semi-structured: involves combining strucutred and unstructured techniques, providing quantitiaave and qualitative data.
39
Outline the advantages of interviews.
- complex issues: complicated or sensitive issues can be dealth with in face-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
- Ease misunderstandings: any misunderstood questions can be explained and indivual questions can be adapred so they are understood by all participants.
- Data Analysis: Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitiative data, which can be used to complement each other.
- Replication : easier to it is to replicate. Unstructured interviews are less easy to replciate but allows for data review.
40
Outline the weaknesses of interviews.
- Inteviewer effects: may be unconciously bias answers, like by their apperance.
- Interview training: a lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particulary concerning sensitive issues.
- Ethical issues: Participants may not know the true purpose of an interview anf there is also the danger that pariticapnts may reveal more than they wish.
- Participant answers: interviews are not suited to participants who ahve difficulty putting their feelings, opinions , etc into words.
41
Describe the difference between correlations and experiments
- experimental designs require manipulation of the IV and a measurement of the DC
- in a correlational study , no variables are manipulated, 2 co variables are measured and compared to look for a relationship
42
What are co variables? Give examples
- the two factors/variables that are measured/collected by the researcher and then compared
- age, IQ , reaction time, height
43
What is a scattergram?
- a graph used to plot the measurement of two co variables
- the co variables can have no correlation , positive C or negatie
44
How can a relationship between co-variables be analysed?
- can be described visually with a scattergram or numerically with a correlation coefficent
- a CC represents both the strength and direction of the relationship between the co-variables as a number between -1 (perfect negative and +1(perfect positive)
- correlation coefficents are calculated using stats tests such as spearman's rho or pearson's
- strong correlation = 0.8 , no correlation = 0
45
Evaluating correlations
- correlaton does not show causation. Whilstit may suggest a relationship exists, it does not show what change led to the change in the second covariable.
- there is a possibility that an unknown third variable caused the change in both covariables.
- However it cna highlight potential causal relationships which can be tested with experimental methods to discover cause and effect relationships.
46
what is content analysis
- an indirect observational method that is used to summarise the main ideas presented in human artefacts ( the things people make)
- a method used to analyse qualitative data by turning it into quantitative data
47
Describe how to perform a content analysis
- decide a reasearch question
- select a sample from all possible data e.g. diaries magazines
- coding: decide on what data to record and how e.g. occurences of particular words, operationalise these to reduce subjective interpretation
- work through the data: read the sample, and tally the number of times the predetermined categories appear
- Data Analysis
48
describe how to test for reliability for content analysis
- test-retest reliability: run the content analysis again on the same sample and compare the two sets of data
- inter-rate reliability: a second rater also performs the content-analysis , with the same set of data and the same categories. Compare
49
Evaluate content analysis as a method
| GIVE STRENGTHS
- the "artefacts" are usually not created for research but are taken from the real world. This meanes it has high external validity , and findings are generalisable.
- come from real world: easy to gather a sample
- replicable: use the same coding units and categories with an easy access sample
50
Evaluate content analysis as a method
| GIVE LIMITATIONS
- researcher will often need to interpret subjective text which may lead to observer bias.
- lacks validity as the data was not created for study under controlled conditions thus historical records like diaries may not contain an accurate record of the past
51
what is thematic analysis
- an inductive method used to analyse qualitative data
- Themes emerge from the data, there is no hypothesis-testing involved.
- It allows researchers to identify, analyse and report common/key themes from a set of data
- A theme is any feature of the data (e.g. an idea, a motif, a topic) which recurs throughout
52
Describe how to perform a thematic analysis
- collect text/ turn recordings into text through transcription
- The researcher familiarises themselves with the data by reading it over and over again to spot patterns which can be coded and collected
- Themes within the data **emerge**
- categorises and defines each theme
- and analyses it
53
What is a case study?
- detailed and in-depth investigations of a small group or an individual.
- allow researchers to examine individuals who have undergone a unique or rare experience or who are unusual in some way.
- Qualitative data may be collected using interviews, observations, open-ended questions on a questionnaire
- can also generate quantitative data: memory tests, IQ tests , closed questions
54
Give uses and examples of case studies
- use in clinical psychology: Tan was able to commuunicate only using the word Tan. Other functions were left unaffacted: Helped identify Broca's area.
- use in psychodynamic psychology: freud used a number of case studies including Little Hans
- use in childhood psychology: Genie was deprived of care until the age of 13
55
Give the strengths of case study
- This is a holistic, idiographic approach, where the whole individual is considered; favoured by humanists who believe that this gives valid insight and true reflection of a person's experience.
- Often the way to investigate very unusual or extreme human behaviour
56
