Research Methods

Question 1

define experimental method

Answer 1

• concerns the manipulation of an independent variable to have an effect on the dependent variable which is measured and stated in results.

Question 2

Define independent and dependent variable

Answer 2

• DV: the factor measured by researchers in an investigation.
• IV: the factor manipulated by researchers in an investigation.

Question 3

define operationalisation of variables and their importance

Answer 3

• the process of defining variables into measurable factors.
• Without it, results will be unreliable and could not be replicated

Question 4

Describe what operationalisation of a DV and IV looks like.

Answer 4

• DV’s would include the measurement scale e.g. time in seconds , score on an assessment
• IV’s would clearly express each level

Question 5

Define extraneous variables and how they differ from confounding vairables.

Answer 5

• variables other than the IV that might affect the DV. They are controllled so that any variation is due to the IV not the EV.
• Confounding variables are uncontrolled extraneous variables that affet the DV thus negatively affect results.

Question 6

define demand characteristics

one way it is reduced

this is a means of improving validity

Answer 6

• features of a piece of research whihch allow the participants to work out its aim/hypotheses.
• Participants may then change their behaviour and so frustrate the aim of the research.
• the single-blind procedure is a technique tht reduces DC as it invovles participants having no idea which condition of a study they are in.

Question 7

what are laboratory experiements

Answer 7

• experiments performed in a controlled environment, using standardised procedure, with particiapnts randomly allocated to experimental groups.

Question 8

Outline the advantages of lab experiments

Answer 8

• High degree of control : experimenters control all variables and the IV and DV are precisely operationalised and measured, leading to greater accuracy.
• Replication.
• Cause and effect relationship can be determined: All other variables are controlled, the effect must be caused soley by the manipulation of the IV.
• Isolation of variables.

Question 9

Outline the weaknesses of laboratory experiments.

Answer 9

• risk of experimenter bias ; interaction with participants may affect their behaviour
• Low external (ecological) validity: high degrees of control make situations aritifican and unlike real life.
• Demand characteristics: Participants are aware theyr’re being tested and so may unconciously alter their behaviour.

Question 10

What is a field experiment?

Answer 10

• experiment conducted in a naturalistic environment where the researchers manipulate the independent variable.
• e.g. bickman

Question 11

give the strengths of a field experiment

Answer 11

• high ecological validity: behaviour is natural as it occurs in a normal environment
• no demand characteristics : unaware of experiment

Question 12

What is a natural experiment?

Answer 12

• the IV occurs naturally and is not manipulated, but records the effect on the DV.
• random alloation of participants is not possible.

Question 13

give the strengths of a natural experiment

Answer 13

• allows research in areas that may be unethical to control
• high in external validity as example of real world behaviour , free from demand characteristics

Question 14

give the weaknesses of field and natural experiments

Answer 14

• less control: makes it difficult to establish extraneous variables , so causality is harder to establish , as effect of dv cannot be isolated
• replication: conditions cannot be replicated
• ethics: unaware that they are in an experiment incurring a lack of informed consent
• sample bias: no random allocation so samples may not be comprable and results representative

Question 15

What is the Quasi experiment?

Answer 15

• The researcher is unable to freely manipulate the independent variable
• often because IV is an innate characteristic e.g. gender , age , income
• random allocation of participants to different conditions is not possible.

Question 16

Outline the advantages of field and natural experiments

Answer 16

• High ecological validity: Due to the real world environment, results relate to everyday behaviour and can be generalised to other settings.
• No demand characteristics.

Question 17

Outline the weaknesses of the field and natural experiments.

Answer 17

• Less control: it is more difficult to control extraneous variables, so causality is harder to establish.
• Replication: difficult to repeat as conditions are not the exact same.
• Ethics: When unawate that they are in an experiment, it incurs a lack of informed consent.
• Sample bias: not random allocation so samples may not be comparable to each other.

Question 18

define observation

what is a controlled observation?

Answer 18

• a non-experimental technique were the researcher watches and record natural behaviour of participants without manipulating levels of IV.
• a controlled observation is when aspects of the environment are controlled often in lab setting

Question 19

Describe a naturalistic observation and evaluate.

Answer 19

• recording of natural events
• high realism: external validity , more generalisable
• extraneous variables : lower internal validity

Question 20

Outline covert and overt observational techniques.

Answer 20

overt: where participants are aware they are being observed.
covert: where participants remain unaware of being observed

Question 21

evaluate overt covert techniques

weakness of one is strength of other

Answer 21

• ethical as the principle of informed consent means partipants agree to take part in the research
• demand characteristics are likely or social desirability bias ( “ try too look good”) + Hawthorne effect

HE: modify their behavior simply because they are aware they are being observed,

Question 23

Outline the two different types of observational techniques

Answer 23

1. Particiapnt observation: involves researchers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more ‘hands on perspective.
2. Non-participant observation: involves researchers recording observations seperate from the participants

Question 24

evaluate participant and non observation

eval is twofold

Answer 24

• taking part : the researcher may build rapport, more trust and comfort; greater detailed obserrvation
• can lose objectivity ; interpretation of bheaviour is biased

Question 25

Outline the weaknesses of observational techniques. | THINK CORE

Answer 25

- **cause and efect** : causality can not be inferred , since variables are not manipulated , and there is little control of extraeous variables. - **Observer bias**: May see what they want to see , can be reduced by establishing inter-observer reliability. - **Replication** : lack of control over variables means conditions can never be repaeated exactyly to check the results. - **Ethics**: If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of pricacy and informed consent arise.

Question 26

Why are behavioural categories used in observational studies?

Answer 26

- Behavioural categories break down complex behaviours into smaller, more manageable units. - making behaviour clearly identifiable and measurable - e.g: aggression = number of kicks , screams etc

Question 27

Give the 2 types of sampling procedures used in observational studies.

Answer 27

Event sampling: Couning the number of times a behaviour occurs in a targer individual or group. Time sampling: Counting behaviour within a set time frame (e.g. every 30 seconds).

Question 28

Evaluate time sampling and event sampling

Answer 28

**time**: - more flexibbility to record unexpected types of behaviour - can miss behaviour that happens outside of the recording periods **event**: - may miss relevant behaviour that has not been categorised. + may struggle to record everything accurately - Useful for studying infrequent or specific behaviours as you record what is categorised

Question 29

What is inter-observer reliability?

Answer 29

- Where two or more trained observers conduct the same observation - use the same coding and behavioural catergories - compare the two data sets ( correlation) - This lessens the chance of observer bias , where an observer sees and records behavior in a subjective way.

Question 30

Define self-report techniques

Answer 30

- participants reveals information about themselves without researcher interference. - in response to a series of questions

Question 31

What are questionnaires and describe the difference between closed and open questions?

Answer 31

- self-report method where participants record their own answers to a pre-set list of questions. - closed: involve yes/no answers. - Easy to quantify but restrict participant's answers. - Open: allow participants to answer in their own words.. More difficult to anlayse , but allow freedom of expression and greater depth of answers.

Question 32

Outline the advanatges of questionnares

Answer 32

- Quick: compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period. - **Lack of investigator effects**: Questionnaers can be completed without researchers present. - Quantitative and qualititative analyses : closed questions are **easy to analyse statistically**, while open questions provide richer fuller detail. - **Replication**: as questionnares use **standardised questions**, they are easy to replicate.

Question 33

Outline the 6 weaknesses of questionnares.

Answer 33

- **Misunderstanding**: participants may misinterpret questions. - **Biased samples**: questionnares are suitable for people who are willing to fill in questionnares and not be respresentative of the whole population. - **low response rates**: uneconomical method as they can get very low return rates. - not suitable for topics which require deep understanding. - **social desirability/idealised answer**: pariticpants may lie in order to give ansers expected of them rather than how they actually feel. - **acquiesce bias**: particpants may respond yes irregradless of the question ( ask the same question again but in reverse to prevent this)

Question 34

Describe the way questionnares and interviewers should be structured

Answer 34

- **avoid complex terminology** to prevent guessing and inaccuracy - **prevent leading questions**: these bias the responses in one direction. questions should not feel like they have a correct response. - **piloting questions**: run a small scale version of the interview to identify confusing , or unccesary responses - these can then be changed - **filler questions**: add to build rapport, act as red herrings to hide research aims, and reduce demand chaacteristics.

Question 35

what are interviews and outline the three main types.

Answer 35

- Self-report method where particiapants answer questions in face to face situations - **Structured**: involves reading out a list of prepared questions - **Unstructured**: involves an open informal discussion on a particular topic. Can ask follow-up qs. - **Semi-structured**: involves combining techniques, providing quantitative and qualitative data.

Question 36

Evaluate each type of interview.

Answer 36

**structured**: - easy to compare responses as questions are standardised - no follow up questions that can provide more detail can be asked. **unstructured**: - builds rapport: feeling comfortable to answer+ follow up q's - comparisons difficult as answers differ

Question 37

Outline the advantages of interviews.

Answer 37

- complicated or **sensitive issues** can be dealt with in face-face interviews by making **participants feel relaxed and able to talk.** - **Ease misunderstandings**: individual questions can be adapted so they are understood by all participants. - **Data Analysis**: Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitiative data, allowing for comprehensive analysis

Question 38

Outline the weaknesses of interviews.

Answer 38

- **Inteviewer effects**: may be unconciously bias answers, like by their apperance. - **Interview training**: a lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particulary concerning sensitive issues. - **Participant answers**: interviews are not suited to participants who have difficulty putting their feelings, opinions , etc into words.

Question 39

Describe the difference between correlations and experiments

Answer 39

- experimental designs require manipulation of the IV and a measurement of the DC - in a correlational study , no variables are manipulated, 2 co variables are measured and compared to look for a relationship

Question 40

What are co variables? Give examples

Answer 40

- the two factors/variables that are measured/collected by the researcher and **then compared** - age, IQ , reaction time, height

Question 41

What is a scattergram?

Answer 41

- a graph used to plot the measurement of two co variables - the co variables can have no correlation , positive C or negatie

Question 42

How can a relationship between co-variables be analysed?

Answer 42

- can be described visually with a scattergram or numerically with a correlation coefficent - a CC represents both the strength and direction of the relationship between the co-variables as a number between -1 (perfect negative and +1(perfect positive) - correlation coefficents are calculated using stats tests such as spearman's rho or pearson's - strong correlation = 0.8 , no correlation = 0

Question 43

Evaluating correlations

Answer 43

- correlaton does not show causation. Whilstit may suggest a relationship exists, it does not show what change led to the change in the second covariable. - there is a possibility that an unknown third variable caused the change in both covariables. - However it cna highlight potential causal relationships which can be tested with experimental methods to discover cause and effect relationships.

Question 44

what is content analysis

Answer 44

- an indirect observational method that is used to summarise the main ideas presented in human artefacts ( the things people make) - a method used to analyse qualitative data by turning it into quantitative data

Question 45

Describe how to perform a content analysis | use chatgpt for examples

Answer 45

1. **Determine your Research Question** What’s your focus? (e.g., aggression in TV shows? 2. **Select Corpus** Which materials? (e.g., 10 episodes) 3. **Unitising** * break down data into meaninful units (e.g., analysing sentences, scenes, tweets) 4. **Coding Categories** * List clear, exclusive categorie (e.g., hitting, shouting) 5. **Pilot Scheme** * Test on a small sample & refine 7. **Code Data** * Assign each unit to a category 8. **Quantify** * Count/category frequencies (and percentages or rates) 9. Analyse and report

Question 46

describe how to test for reliability for content analysis

Answer 46

- test-retest reliability: run the content analysis again on the same sample and compare the two sets of data - inter-rate reliability: a second rater also performs the content-analysis , with the same set of data and the same categories. Compare and calculate a correlation - a high correlation of 0.8 - indicates reliability

Question 47

Evaluate content analysis as a method | GIVE STRENGTHS

Answer 47

- the "artefacts" are usually not created for research but are taken from the real world. This meanes it has **high external validity** , and findings are generalisable. - come from real world: easy to gather a sample - **replicable**: use the same coding units and categories with an easy access sample

Question 48

Evaluate content analysis as a method | GIVE LIMITATIONS

Answer 48

- researcher will often need to interpret subjective text which may lead to observer bias. - sampling methods - lead to a lack of context - inaccurate conclusions. - lacks validity as the data was not created for study under controlled conditions thus historical records like diaries may not contain an accurate record of the past

Question 49

what is thematic analysis

Answer 49

- an qualitative research method which allows researchers to identify, analyse and report common/key themes from a data set - Themes emerge from the data, there is no hypothesis-testing involved. - A theme is any feature of the data (e.g. an idea, a motif, a topic) which recurs throughout

Question 50

Describe how to perform a thematic analysis

Answer 50

- collect text/ turn recordings into text through transcription - The researcher familiarises themselves with the data by reading it over and over again to spot patterns which can be coded and collected - Themes within the data **emerge** - categorises and defines each theme - and analyses it

Question 51

What is a case study?

Answer 51

- detailed and in-depth investigations of a small group or an individual. - allow researchers to examine individuals who have undergone a unique or rare experience or who are unusual in some way. - Qualitative data may be collected using interviews, observations, open-ended questions on a questionnaire - can also generate quantitative data: memory tests, IQ tests , closed questions

Question 52

Give uses and examples of case studies

Answer 52

- use in clinical psychology: Tan was able to commuunicate only using the word Tan. Other functions were left unaffacted: Helped identify Broca's area. - use in psychodynamic psychology: freud used a number of case studies including Little Hans - use in childhood psychology: Genie was deprived of care until the age of 13

Question 53

Give the strengths of case study

Answer 53

- a holistic, idiographic approach,favoured by humanists who believe that this gives valid insight and true reflection of a person's experience. - Often the way to investigate very unusual or extreme human behaviour

Question 54

Give limitatons of case studies

Answer 54

- unique to the individual : thus cannot be generalised to wider populations - interviews: weaknesses - case studies can suffer fro researcher bias; choose what to write. - close relationship: may lose objectivity

Question 55

what is an aim?

Answer 55

- a clearly phrased general statement about what is intended to be researched - can include the purpose of the study

Question 56

What is a hypothesis? Give the two types.

Answer 56

- a testable statement written as a prediction of what the researcher expects the results to be. - includes the variables being tested - null + alternative hypothesis

Question 57

what is the: - null hypothesis - alternative hypothesis

Answer 57

- NH: states that there is no change ( difference) in the measurement of the dependent variable as a result of the IV - AH: states that there is a change ( difference) in the measurement of the DC as a result of the manupulation in the IV.

Question 58

Give the two types of alternative hypothesis

Answer 58

- non directional hypothesis (two-tailed testing) - directional hypothesis

Question 59

What is a directional hypothesis?

Answer 59

- predicts the direction of the difference in conditions - states there is a difference and directs where the results were going/

Question 60

# w What is a non-directional hypothesis?

Answer 60

- does not predict the direction of the difference in conditions i.e. it simply predicts that a difference will be shown - there will be a difference in the number of correctly recalled items... not how many how large of a difference

Question 61

What is random sampling?

Answer 61

- each member of the target populaition has a mathematically equal chance of being in the experiment's sample - researcher needs a full list of the entire target population. All names are randomly generated selected from the sample.

Question 62

Evaluate random sampling. Give strengths.

Answer 62

- eliminates researcher bias as the researcher has no control over who is being selected - Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, so the sample is more likely to reflect the diversity of the target population. - | more likely then oppurtunity or volunteer

Question 63

Evaluate random sampling. Give limitations.

Answer 63

- random sampling can be time-consuming and impractical. ( compared to oppurtunity) - can result in a non-representative sample; equal chance may not reflect the diversity of a population especially in small samples

Question 64

define systematic sampling

Answer 64

- participants are chosen from a list of the target population. Every nth participant is chosen to form a sample.

Question 65

Evaluate systematic sampling.

Answer 65

- avoids researcher bias as the researcher cannot choose the participants they want in their sample. - quick method of selecting sample, follows a systematic method - By chance this method could result in an unrepresentative sample. - more of one social group then another?

Question 66

What is an oppurtunity sampling?

Answer 66

- the researcher directly asks available members of the target population to take part in the research. - Individuals who agree to take part are added to the sample.

Question 67

Evaluate oppurtunity sampling. Give strengths and weaknesses

Answer 67

- less time consuming and cost inducing. - prone to uncious bias when approaching people ; may select those whom they feel comfortable with - unlikely to be representative as represents those who were available; so not possible to generalise

Question 68

what is volunteer sampling

Answer 68

- self-selecting; participants offer to take part after finding out about the research - likely after seeing an ad/poster - ads are placed near target population e.g gym for fitness ,or pubs for alcholics

Question 69

Evaluate volunteer sampling

Answer 69

- strengths: - can reach a large number of participants if ad is widely read - easy sample to collect and more motivated as directly volunteer weaknesses: - volunteer bias , types of people who volunteer to take part may not be from target population - not generalisable - volunteer bias

Question 70

what is stratified sampling?

Answer 70

- generates a small-scale reproduction proportional to the target population. - Identify the target population - Divide the population into strata based on a decided characteristic. - Calculate the number of participants needed from each stratum so that their proportions match the real population. - Use random sampling within each stratum to select participants.

Question 71

Evaluate stratified sampling

Answer 71

- sample is representative of the target population - researcher has control over the chosen categories - participanrs are randomly slected - no research bias - x: More time-consuming and complex to organize, as must have access to info about target population.

Question 72

Name the three types of experimental design

Answer 72

- repeated measures design - independent groups design - matched pairs design

Question 73

What is an independent group's design?

Answer 73

- Participants are randomly assigned to one level of the independent variable. - Each person experiences only one condition, producing a single data set. ( unrealted data) - e.g. participant A learns a poem with music playing (condition 1) (participant B learns the same poem in silence (condition 2)

Question 74

Give the strengths of an independent groups design | give strengths

Answer 74

- demand characteristics are unlikely to act as a confounding variable. As participants only take part in one condition of the IV they are less likely to guess the aim of the study. This increases the internal validity of the study - order effects are eliminated as participants only experience one condition - random allocation - less bias?

Question 75

Give the weaknesses of an independent groups design

Answer 75

- Participant variables may affect the results — because different participants take part in each condition. - individual differences (e.g., intelligence, motivation, mood, prior experience) could influence the outcome rather than the independent variable.

Question 76

What is a repeated measures design?

Answer 76

- participants experience all conditions of the IV - Each participant completes each of the experimental conditions, generating related data

Question 77

Give the stregnths of a repeaed measures design/

Answer 77

- Participant variables are not an issue as each participant's performance in one condition is measured against their own performance in another condition. increase in internal validity. - fewer participants are needed , generates two scores as experiences each condition. | ask chatgpt to explain

Question 78

Give the weaknesses of repeated measures design

Answer 78

- Demand characteristics may become a confounding variable. As participants take part in both conditions of the IV , they may guess the aim of the study. - order effects may lowert the validity of the study so researcher cannot be confident that the IV has affected the DV.

Question 79

What are order effects?

Answer 79

- the effect of the sequence in which participants experience conditions of an experiment can have on their performance. e.g: - fatigue: may tire the participants which could result in impaired performance - boredom: lose interest in the experiment which could result in reduced effort - practice : may improve their performance in the second condition, if tasks are similar.

Question 80

How can order effects be controlled?

Answer 80

- using counterbalancing. - where the order of conditions is varied between participants so half the participants complete condition A then B , and the other half do the opposite. **- this means that order effects are balanced and occur equally for both groups** ## Footnote compare results from prior to order effects have been established e.g. group 1's condition a with group 2's condition b

Question 81

What is matched pair design?

Answer 81

- matched pairs design, participants are matched in pairs based on variables that are likely to impact the DV (e.g. age, IQ, gender) - each member of the pair is placed in a different condition. - controls for indivdiual differences as any difference in performance is due to the IV

Question 82

Give the strengths of matched pair design

Answer 82

- reduces participant variables as results are more likely to be due to the change in IV , as individual differences are more controlled. - no order effects as pariticpants only take part in one condition

Question 83

Give the weaknesses of matched pair design

Answer 83

- longer to set up - needs 2x as many participants as a repeated measures deisgn - matched on similar characteristics , still not the same , so still some participant variables

Question 84

Name the three types of extraneous variables

Answer 84

- Participant variables - Situational variables - Experimenter/Investigator effects

Question 85

What are investigator effects?

Answer 85

- occur when the researcher's behaviour interferes with the research process and becomes a source of bias. - characteristics, such as age, gender and ethnicity, accent could influence how participants interact with them. - researcher could be biased in the way that they instruct participants

Question 86

Describe how to control for investigator effects ## Footnote this is a means of improving validity

Answer 86

- use a double-blind procedure - This means that the participants and the researcher do not know which condition each participant has been assigned to - Therefore the researcher is not able to exercise any forms of bias during the procedure and data analysis

Question 87

What are participant variables? | give examples

Answer 87

- refer to characteristics of participants that may affect the outcome of the study - e.g : age, gender, intelligence , mood , personality , experience

Question 88

Describe how participant variables can be controlled.

Answer 88

- Random allocation – randomly assign participants to conditions to spread variables evenly. - Matched pairs design – match participants in each group based on key characteristics (e.g. same age, IQ).

Question 89

What are situational variables?

Answer 89

- environmental factors that might influence participants’ behaviour - e.g. noise, lighting , time of day, temperature, instructions

Question 90

Describe how to control situational variables?

Answer 90

- Keep the environment standardised (same room, same lighting, same instructions, etc.). - Use controls

Question 91

What is randomisation? | its purpose and examples

Answer 91

- describes a lack of predictability where outcomes are due to chance - deliberate avoidance of bias to keep research objective. - e.g. random allocation to the levels of the IV, procedural aspects: random list of words

Question 92

What is standardisation? Give examples of standardisation in research.

Answer 92

- describe the identical procedure set up in an experiment across all conditions/participants. - allows the research to be replicated which in turn makes it reliable - e.g. **equal number of participants** , same **instructions** , same **time spent in conditon**. same **material**.

Question 93

what are pilot studies

Answer 93

- **small-scale trials** that are run to **test** aspects of the proposed investigation.

Question 94

What are the aims of pilot studies?

Answer 94

- enable the researcher to identify problems in the proposed study - if any problems are exposed by the pilot study the researcher then has the opportunity to fix them or to find suitable alternatives. - and then conduct a final pilst study to test the new measures. - e.g. ethics , flaws in design issues , practicality, relaibility and validity.

Question 95

Why are ethical guidelines important in psychological research? | and who proposes them

Answer 95

- To protect participants and researchers, and ensure research is conducted responsibly and professionally - ethical guidelines are provided by the British Psychological Society (BPS

Question 96

What are the four key ethical principles in the BPS Code of Conduct? | and their purpose

Answer 96

- Respect, Competence, Responsibility, Integrity - ensure research approval and maintenance of professional reputation

Question 97

Name the ethical issues in the design and conduct of research

Answer 97

- informed consent - right to withdraw - protection from harm - confidentiality - debriefing - deception

Question 98

What is informed consent? | links to deception

Answer 98

- Participants should have detailed information about **the nature , the length and hazards of the task.** - to be able to make an **informed decision** about taking part in the research - if under 16 - needs parental consent. | e.g Milgram

Question 99

What is the right to withdraw?

Answer 99

- should be told they can withdraw at any stage with no adverse consquences - includes withdrawing data collected from them

Question 100

What does protection from harm refer to?

Answer 100

- researcher is responsible for designing research that does not risk the psych + physical well-being , personal values and dignity of the participants

Question 101

What does privacy + confidentiality refer to?

Answer 101

- participant's personal data should be secure and not shared. - It should be anonoymous and not reveal info about the participant's identity.

Question 102

what is debriefing and its purpose?

Answer 102

- the process of informing participants about the true aims and nature of the study after it has ended. - reveal any deception , asnwer questions, ensure participants leave w/o harm, offer the right to withdraw data

Question 103

Describe how researchers can deal with ethical issues in research

Answer 103

- if the research requires harm or deception , the researcher can perform a cost benefit analysis by assessing harm to participants and the potential benefits of the research to societty

Question 104

define peer review

Answer 104

- independent assessment of research by experts in the same field before it is published

Question 105

What is the aim of peer review in the research process?

Answer 105

- ensure that only credible, scientifically acceptable research is published. - check the validity of the findings - assesses the appropriateness of the research - suggest or provide recommendations/amendments

Question 106

What is the process of peer review?

Answer 106

- paper is assessed by independent experts "peers" - they consider the quality of the paper and conduct the aims ( F105) - peers decide if they can recommend the paper for puplication ( decide on an outcome)

Question 107

What are the four possible outomes of peer review

Answer 107

1. Accept the work unconditionally 2. Accept the work as long as the researcher makes specific improvements/amendments 3. Reject the work, but suggest amendments for re-submission of the work 4. Reject the work outright

Question 108

What are the three types of peer review?

Answer 108

1. **Open Review**: The researchers and reviewers are known to each other- believed to reduce plagiarism 2. **Single-blind Review**: researcher's name is not revealed to the reviewers 3. **Double-blind Review**: The researcher and the reviewers are anonymous to each other

Question 109

what are some economic implications of psychological reaearch?

Answer 109

- research influences how money is spent at both governmental (macro) and individual/employer (micro) levels. - has implications on; health (mental health funding) , education ( student learning) , law and order ( effect of EWT) , family policy ( MDH - childcare policies).

Question 110

define reliability

Answer 110

- refers to whether the results are consistent - If a standardised procedure is replicated, the study should show similar results.

Question 111

Describe the reliability of lab , field and natural experiments.

Answer 111

- lab experiments occur under controlled conditions , with standardised procedure, random allocation. - high reliability - field susceptible to extraneous variables, not allow for consistent results - less reliable - natural , no control over IV as naturally occuring - less reliable

Question 112

What is internal relaibility and how can it be measured?

Answer 112

- **Internal reliability**: The extent to which a measure is consistent with itself. e.g. the questions should consistently measure the variable. - can be measured using the split half method ## Footnote is about how well the questions lead to answers that match up — not just in one person, but across a bunch of people.

Question 113

What is the split half method?

Answer 113

- The researcher splits the test in half and analyses the responses given to the first half of the questionnaire compared to the second half of the questionnaire - If similar responses are given in both halves then internal reliability is established. - Test strength of the correlation

Question 114

What is external reliability? | and how can it be assessed

Answer 114

- The extent to which a measure is consistent when repeated e.g over time or different participants - can be assessed through test-retest + inter-rater reliability

Question 115

What is test-retest reliability?

Answer 115

- The same participants are given the same questionnaire at separate time intervals. e.g. a week - If the same result is found per participant then external reliability is established

Question 116

What is inter-rater reliability? | hint: think observation!

Answer 116

- the level of consistency between two or more trained observers when they conduct the same observation - using the same agreed-upon categories - Then compare the two independent data sets (often a tally chart and test the correlation . - a strong positive correlation = reliable and categories are well operationalised.

Question 117

How can one improve the reliability of observation?

Answer 117

- ensure the categories: - are operationalised - measure only observable behaviour - are distinct, with no overlapping

Question 118

How can one improve the reliability of interviews?

Answer 118

- using the same trained interviewer for each separate interview - ensure no leading questions with a script, for similar experiences thus structured interviews are favoured

Question 119

How can one improve the reliability of questionnares

Answer 119

- running the test-retest method andsplit half method, excluding any questions which do not show consistency - use closed questions to reduce the range of possible resources - if there is an established questionnare , use it instead of creating a new test e.g. the ones used for therapy

Question 120

How can one improve the reliability of experiments?

Answer 120

- all aspects of the procedure are controlled and standardised - ensuring that the IV and DV are operationalised - use established testing measures ( have already been used can compare data)

Question 121

define validity

Answer 121

- the extent to which the findings of a study are representative of what it is measuring - does it actually measures what it claims to be measuring?

Question 122

define internal validity

Answer 122

- measures the extent to which the results are due to the manipulation of the IV rather than the influence of uncontrolled confounding variables

Question 123

Describe 4 factors that affect internal validity

Answer 123

- social desirability bias - demand characteristics - investigator effects - uncontrolled extraneous variables - all of them may effect the validity of the claim that the IV does indeed affect the DV ## Footnote may be that instead of age affecting social behaviour - a participant pretends to be more social ...

Question 124

What is external validity?

Answer 124

- measures the extent to which the results can be generalised beyond the research setting | is it still valid in different cirumstances?

Question 125

Give examples / measures of external validity

Answer 125

- **ecological validity** : can the findings be generalised to different environements? - **mundane realism**: are the tasks similar to those experienced in the real world? - **population validity**: is the sample used representative of the target population? - **temporal validity**: can the results be generalised to other time periods?

Question 126

Name the three methods of **assessing** validity

Answer 126

- face validity - predictive validity - concurrent validity

Question 127

What is face validity?

Answer 127

- This measure assesses whether a test or study appears to measures what it set out to measure - e.g. does this maths test look like it could test maths skills | whether on the surface it looks right?

Question 128

What is predictive validity?

Answer 128

- assesses validity by measuring how well a test or study can predict future behaviour - e.g. gcse scores can predict a level results ## Footnote relevant when the aim of the test is to predict/ influence a future outcome

Question 129

What is concurrent validity?

Answer 129

- assesses how closely two different tests of the same variable are similar to one another - This is assed by a test of correlation , if there is high concurrent validity , a strength of the correlation is 0.8 and higher - usually used to test it against a test of gold standard - a well established test

Question 130

How can we **improve** internal validity?

Answer 130

- improved by demonstrating a high level of control over variables to ensure IV is the sole cause of the change in the DV. - random allocation: controls participant variables - standardisation: controls extraneous variables - counterbalancing: controls order effects - single and double blind trials: controls research bias and demand characteristics - peer review: controls researcher bias

Question 131

How can we improve external validity?

Answer 131

- ensure findings are generalisable. - ensure that the cause and effect relationship is not specific to the original set up of the investigation - use diverse groups - population validity - use realisitc tasks: mundane realism - use multiple settings: ecological validity

Question 132

Name the features of science

Answer 132

- empircisim - objectivity - replicability - falsifiability - paradigm shift -

Question 133

What is the empirical method?

Answer 133

- it is a philosophical psoition that factual knowledge is limited to our sense experience - collect data from direct experience , in psychology this can be thorugh the different research methods

Question 134

# w What is objectivity and how can it be improved?

Answer 134

- data should avoid bias and not be influenced by opinion. Should not produce subjective conclusions - double blind , peer review , systematic data collection

Question 135

what is replicability?

Answer 135

- refers to a piece of research which could be carried out again by the same or another researcher and which would be likely to show consistent results

Question 136

What is falsifiability?

Answer 136

- the ability of a theory to be found to be wrong - for a theory to be scientific , it must be constructed in a manner where it can be tested to be false. - If the theory is true then it should withstand testing. | karl popper!

Question 137

What is a paradigm shift?

Answer 137

- A paradigm is a set of shared assumptions and methods within a particular discipline - A paradigm shift occurs when there is a move away from an existing, accepted paradigm to a different way of thinking

Question 138

Describe the stages of theory construction in science

Answer 138

1. observation ( empirical evidence) 2. construct a testable hypothesis 3. conduct an experiment and gain data ( collect empirical data using controlled condition - conduct a stats test) 4. propose one's theory which explain's the results | e.g. effect of light intensity on plant growth - theory: photosynthesis

Question 139

Name the sections of a scientific report

Answer 139

- abstract + introduction - method + findings - discussion + referencing

Question 140

What is an abstract and an introduction?

Answer 140

- The abstract is a summary of the entire research process which should be 150 - 200 words long. include a brief overview of the study's aim, hypotheses, method, results and conclusion - intro; details what the study is to cover e.g the theory , prior research, hypotheses.

Question 141

What is described in the method and findings stage of a scientific report

Answer 141

- guide outlining in detail how the research was conducted. - includes a justified choice of experimental design - pariticpants , number and sampling technqiues - materials + procedure : how was it conducted; its standardisation - results summarise the data collected - shown descriptive statistics and any statsitical tests performed.

Question 142

What is discussion and referencing in a scientific report?

Answer 142

- involves what the data analysis means, whether the hypothesis should be accepted - implications of the research/ conclusions made and any evaluations of their own research. - references are any studies used to inform the current research - provides credit and avoids plagiairism

Question 143

What is quantitative data? | and which methods tend to generate this data

Answer 143

- data in the form of numbers - can be transformed into tables, graphs, charts, percentages, fractions etc. + statistically analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics. - experiments e.g. scores, observations e.g. tally charts, correlations , through CC, questionares/surveys via closed questions

Question 144

Give the stregnths of quantitative data

Answer 144

- tends to be **reliable** as it is **easy to analyse and compare**. This is because the techniques used to collect it tend to be replicable e.g. standardised procedures, correlational analysis, meta-analysis. - can highlight trends and patterns which is useful when researchers wish to apply general laws of behaviour

Question 145

Give the weaknesses of quantitative data

Answer 145

- Quantitative data lacks explanatory power. Thus it is low in validity. - Quantitative data tends to over-simplify the complex, multi-faceted nature of human behaviour and experience. This limits its usefulness as a means of gaining insight into people's motives, dreams, fears etc.

Question 146

What is qualitative data? | and which methods tend to generate this data and how can it be analysed?

Answer 146

- data in the form of words or images - interviews/diary entries/ naturalistic observations/ open-ended questions - can be analysed using content and thematic analysis

Question 147

Give the strengths of qualititative data

Answer 147

- allows researchers to **gain insight** into the nature of individual experience and meaning. This makes it **high in ecological validity.** - **rich in detail** - collect more info and less limited in their responses e.g. through the use of open ended questions. - inisght into complex and **unique** behaviours. e..g patient HM.

Question 148

Give the weaknesses of qualitative data

Answer 148

- can be open to interpretation and potentially biased - subjective so does not embrace the features of science e.g. objectivity and control , lacks relaibility. - challenging to analyse and summarise

Question 149

What is primary data?

Answer 149

- refers to data **collected at the source** - researcher is responsible for generating the data through conducting experiments, questionnates etc. - has **not been** previously published

Question 150

Give the strengths of primary data

Answer 150

- increased validity as the research is designed to test the intended variable directly - researcher has full control over data collection ; may be more reliable and valid than secondary data as can ensure data quality

Question 151

Give the weaknesses of primary data

Answer 151

- derived from a single study compared to secondary data which can amass huge samples. This limits the potential **statistical power** of the primary data - expensive and time-consuming compared to the use of secondary data which can be gathered very quickly

Question 152

what is secondary data?

Answer 152

- when researchers use information **previously collected by a third party** - consists of any research findings/results which are pre-existing, or previously published - often derived from multiple sources e.g. a meta analysis

Question 153

Give the strengths of secondary data

Answer 153

- have already been peer-reviewed and the significance of each study has already been established thus more cost-effective and less time consuming - may **provide new insight** into existing theories and research As several studies on the same topic are analysed this **allows the researcher to see patterns,and trends** that are unlikely to emerge with the analysis of just one study.

Question 154

What are the limitations of secondary data?

Answer 154

- decreased validity as the data is not collected to may not directly address the aim or the topic of the research - As the researcher has not run the original studies themselves they do not know the degree of control exercised by the original researcher This lack of control affects the reliability of the data.

Question 155

What is a meta-analysis?

Answer 155

- a quantitative research method which collects the results of a range of previously published studies asking similar research questions. - Data is compared and reviewed together , and can include a statistical calculation of the numerical findings , to provide an overall conclusion.

Question 156

Give the strengths of meta-analysis

Answer 156

- less chance of bias confounding the results due to the use of secondary data. - Researchers have not carried out the research themselves so they cannot have influenced the outcome in any way; **increases reliability** - possible to generalise the findings to a wider population due to the number of studies included in the meta-analysis. **increases the external validity**

Question 157

Give the weaknesses of meta-analysis

Answer 157

- has all the weaknesses of secondary data: lower reliability. - may be difficult for the researcher to access relevant studies. process can be time-consuming - choice of which studies to include/exclused could be biased. Studies show stasticially significant data is more likely to be published then not.

Question 158

What does descriptive statistics consist of? | And what do they consist of?

Answer 158

- include measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion

Question 159

What are measures of central tendency? And what do they consist of?

Answer 159

- describe the central or typical value of a data set , are used to summarise large amounts of data into typical mid-point scores - there are three measures of the central tendency ; mean , the median , the mode.

Question 160

What is the mode? | when is it most often used?

Answer 160

- calculates the most frequently occurring score in a data set - identifies the most common score(s) in a data set. - The data set may have no mode , two modes ( bi-modal) , more than two modes ( multi-modal). - the mode is often used when the mean or median cannot be used e.g. how many times something happens - need measure of frequency. | means "most often"

Question 161

Evaluate the use of the mode | give strengths and weaknesses ## Footnote 2/2

Answer 161

- mode is not affected by extreme values (outliers)* - often useful for the analysis of qualitative data; e.g. analysis of frequency of themes in data. **limitations**: - mode cannot give an exact average value in small data sets , as may offer an unrepresentative central measure, thus may lack validity - may include two modes or more which blurs the meaning of the data, making it difficult for the researcher to form conclusions. This means that the mode is the least reliable | * as extreme values are infrequent

Question 162

What is the median?

Answer 162

- calculates the middle value of a data set (the positional average) - data has to be arranged into numerical order first

Question 163

Evaluate the use of the median as a measure of central tendency

Answer 163

- median is not affected by extreme scores, thus can be used on data sets with anomalous scores - best measure when dealing with qualitative data where ranking of categories or themes is used instead of measurement or counting. limits: - less sensitive data as the mean as it does not include all of the data in its calculation e.g. does not account for extreme scores making it less reliable - time consuming to order for large data sets

Question 164

what is the mean ?

Answer 164

- calculates the average score of a data set - indicates what a researcher would expect to find (as the average score) if they were to replicate the procedure of a given study. - calculated using the total score of all the values in the data set divided by the number of values in that set

Question 165

Evaluate the mean as a measure of central tendency

Answer 165

- most sensitive measure of central tendency as it takes all scores in the data set into account - more likely than other measures of central tendency to provide a representative score, makes it is the most reliable weaknesses: - mean is sensitive to extreme scores (outliers) so it can only be used when the scores are reasonably close. - may not be represented in the data set itself

Question 166

In which data types are the mean , mode and median most appropriate for?

Answer 166

- **Nominal** (categories like eye colour, gender): **mode** - **Ordinal** (ranked, e.g. pain scale 1–10): **Median** (gives the middle rank) - **Interval/Ratio** (numerical data like test scores, time): **Mean**, unless the data is skewed or has outliers |

Question 167

What are measures of dispersion? Give the two examples | and the characteristics of low and high dispersion

Answer 167

- calculate **the spread of scores** and how much they vary in terms of how distant they are from the mean or median - **low dispersion** will have scores that cluster around the measure of central tendency ( mean or median) - **high dispersion** will have scores that are spread apart from the central measure with **much variation** among them - **no dispersion**: exact same scores as no variation. - **range and standard deviation** | think less dispersed ( less spread out)

Question 168

what is the range?

Answer 168

- describes the difference between the lowest and the highest scores in a data set - provides information as to the gap between those scores.

Question 169

Evaluate the range as a measure of dipersion. Give strengths and weaknesses.

Answer 169

- range provides a broad overview of the data which can be useful for some research purposes - simple easy to calculate - lacks validity as no indication of **the degree of variation** from the mean. no info of other scores in data set. - extreme scores easily distort the value

Question 170

What is standard deviation? | what does a high or low SD tell us?

Answer 170

- calculates how a set of scores deviates from the mean - provides insight into how clustered or spread out the scores are from the mean. - **low SD**: the scores are clustered tightly around the mean thus high reliability of the data set. ( consistent around the average) - **high SD**: the scores are more spread out from the mean which indicates lower reliability

Question 171

How is the standard deviation calculated?

Answer 171

1. Calculate the mean 2. Subtract the mean from each score in the data set 3. Square the scores which have just been calculated. 4. Add all of the squared scores together 5. Divide the total squared score by the number of scores minus 1 6. Work out the square root of the variance (using a calculator)

Question 172

Give the strengths of standard deviation

Answer 172

- provides information as to how the scores are distributed across a data set. Thus can indicate to what extent the data set is reliable and consistent. - more sensitive than the range as it uses all the scores in the data set: a more valid representation

Question 173

Give the limitations of standard deviation as a measure of dispersion

Answer 173

- onerous and time-consuming to calculate. CA: however can calculate using an online tool. - can be skewed by extreme outliers; may inflate or depress the standard deviation, giving a misleading representation of the spread of values in the data set

Question 174

When are tables used?

Answer 174

- use a raw data table : a record of each participants data - frequency table: a log of the frequency of observations of beheaviural categories - tally charts - summary of descriptive stats: large amounts of raw data can be summarised into measures of dispersion and central tendency.

Question 175

When is a bar chart is used?

Answer 175

- summarises the frequency of **categorical/nominal** data. - frequency is found on the y axis and the category on the X axis. - data on the x axis is **DISCRETE** | discrete: distinct, separate values, often integers or categories

Question 176

What is a pie chart?

Answer 176

- a circular graph - the size of each slice is proportional to its representation in the data

Question 177

What is a scattergram?

Answer 177

- display the results of correlations - shows the point at which two separate pieces of data meet - Each co-variable can be presented along the x-axis or the y-axis -

Question 178

What is a line graph and when is it used?

Answer 178

- allow for the display of a comparison of two sets of continious data on the same graph - frequency is placed on the Y axis and variable on the X axis

Question 179

What is a histogram and when is it used?

Answer 179

- the x-axis represents the categories that have been measured - the y-axis represents the frequencies of each category occurring - shows continuous data, where the bars touch each other

Question 180

What is distribution, give the three types of distribution of data on a histogram?

Answer 180

- refers to the spread of data around the mean - positive skey - negative skew - normal distribution

Question 181

What is a normal distribution. Refer to mean , median ,mode.

Answer 181

- most of the data points cluster around the mean - the mean , mode and median are the same - mean = mode=median ( perfect distribution)

Question 182

Describe the characterstics of a **positve skew** on a distribution

Answer 182

- **most** of the values are found towards the **left side** - *tail* is found on the *right* and *peak* on the **left** - **Mode < Median < Mean** (from lowest to highest) - The mean gets pulled right (higher) by high outliers. - remember **mean follows the tail**.

Question 183

Describe the characteristics of a **negative skew** on a distribution

Answer 183

- most of the values are found towards the right side of the graph, giving a long tail on the left. - Mean < Median < Mode (from lowest to highest) - mean gets pulled left (lower) by extreme low outliers. ## Footnote Mean follows the tail

Question 184

Name the level of measurements?

Answer 184

- nominal - ordinal - interval

Question 185

What is nominal data?

Answer 185

- often referred to as categorical data - variables are discrete with no natural order - colour of hair , career choice , ethnicity

Question 186

What is ordinal data?

Answer 186

- when participant scores can be arranged in a **rank order** - represents categories with a meaningful order - e.g. how happy do u feel ; 1-7 ; positions in a competition - discrete data

Question 187

What is interval data?

Answer 187

- has **equal intervals between each value** - provides the most sensitive and sophisticated level of measurement - e.g. weight in grams , length in mm, temperature in celcius , time in seconds. - can be converted to ordinal data as the interval values can then be ranked, e.g hottest day - coldest ( temp)

Question 188

What are the levels of signifiance/ probability and why are they used?

Answer 188

- **p < 0.05**: probability of chance factors producing the observed result is less than or equal to 5%) - a more stringent level of significance, e.g. **p < 0.01** - They are used to determine whether the null or alternative hypothesis should be accepted.

Question 189

What are type I errors? | how can it be reduced?

Answer 189

- whenn researcher's accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis in error - So the data was due to chance, but seen as signtificant - can use a more stringent P level e.g. P=<0.01, this does increase the likelihood of a type 2 error.

Question 190

What are type 2 errors?

Answer 190

- when researchers reject the alternate hypothesis and accept the null , in error - The data collected is significant but were dismissed as due to chance. - to reduce type 2 error , use a more lax Proability = 0.05

Question 191

What are inferential statistics?

Answer 191

- use the data collected from the sample , to make inferences about the behaviour of the entire target population.

Question 192

Describe the method of determinging what statistical test to use

Answer 192

- what kind of data is e.g. nominal , ordinal , interval - what is the experimental design? independent groups design ( unrelated data) or repeated measures ( related data) - Is it a test of difference or a test of correlation/association?

Question 193

What are parametric tests?

Answer 193

assume the following: - A normal distribution - use of interval data - Homogeneity of variance (similar in terms of their dispersion/standard deviation) - more statistical power - you **reject the null** if your observed value is **greater than** or equal to critical value.

Question 194

What are non-parametric tests?

Answer 194

- no assumption of a normal distribution - use nominal or ordinal data - For **non-parametric** tests (e.g., Sign Test, Mann-Whitney), you **reject the null** if your observed value is **equal to or less than the critical value.**

Question 195

Give the table of statistical tests

Answer 195

**Parametric tests:** - Unrelated t-test - Related t-test - Pearson’s r **Non-parametric tests:** - Mann-Whitney U - Wilcoxon T - Chi-squared - Spearman's rho - The Sign Test

Question 196

Desribe how to interpret data using a stats test

Answer 196

1. State the Hypotheses ; null + alternative 2. Choose the appropriate test 3. Calculate the value 4. Find the critical value 5. Compare the observed value to the critical value 6. Make a decision based on what type of test it is. Either reject or accept the null.

Question 197

How do you calculate the sign test?

Answer 197

1. State the hypotheses. 2. Calculate the differences between pairs (A - B). 3. Exclude zero differences. 4. Count positives and negatives. 5. Find the smaller count (observed value, S). 6. Look up the critical value from the table. 7. Compare observed value (S) to the critical value. 8. Draw a conclusion based on the comparison. | practice it - save my exams