Research Methods

Question 1

Who are positivists and what do they value?

Answer 1

• See sociology as a science existing of social facts which exercise control over individuals - we have no freewill and are controlled by structures
• Functionalists, Marxists,
• Will use quantitative methods as they value objective data with which you can identify trends and patterns

Question 2

Who are interpretivists and what do they value?

Answer 2

• See individuals as having a conscious and freewill - not puppets reacting to social control
• Interactionalists, Subcultural Theorists, Feminists
• Will use qualitative methods as they value depth and verstehen in their findings to gain understanding of individuals motivations and intentions

Question 3

What is sampling?

Answer 3

Sampling = a collection of a population that you are researching who are typical of the rest of the population
Sampling frame = List of people who will be included in study

Question 4

What is and are the pros and cons of random sampling?

Answer 4

Random Sampling = Completely random, everyone has equal chance of selection
Strength = equal chance of selection prevents researcher bias
Weakness = May not be representative in practice, may need access to external resources

e.g. OFSTED

Question 5

What is and are the pros and cons of systematic sampling?

Answer 5

Systematic sampling = every nth person from sampling frame is selected until desired sample size is reached
Strength = no researcher bias
Weakness = may not be representative, time consuming, need access to external resources, may produce a small sample

e.g. Willmott and Young ‘Symmetrical Family’ selected every 36th person on the electoral register

Question 6

What is and are the pros and cons stratified sampling?

Answer 6

Stratified sampling = sampling frame is subdivided into smaller frames representative of general population. PPs are then randomly selected from each group
Strength = representative, no researcher bias
Weakness = time consuming, requires math skills, need a lot of info on sampling frame

e.g. ‘Pygmalion in the Classroom’ Rosenthal and Jacobson chose 18 classes then chose 20% of students at random to be the ‘spurters’

Question 7

What is and are the pros and cons of quota sampling?

Answer 7

Quota sampling = predetermined number of people with each particular characteristic are established, once quota is filled no more PPs in that category are studied
Strengths = doesn’t require skill, inclusive
Weaknesses = unrepresentative of general population, researcher bias, time consuming

e.g. Oakley’s ‘Sociology of Housework’ interviewed 40 London housewives

Question 8

What is and are the pros and cons of snowball sampling?

Answer 8

Snowball sampling = researcher identifies 1/2 people to take part and gets them to introduce them to others who are willing to take part
Strength = time efficient, more ethical - trust is gained
Weakness = unrepresentative, can’t create sampling frame

e.g. James Patrick’s ‘Glasgow Gangs’

Question 9

What is and are the pros and cons of opportunity sampling?

Answer 9

Opportunity sampling = selecting people are easily contactable
Strength = time efficient, easy access
Weakness = unrepresentative, bias
e.g. Bushman’s study of situational factors affecting obedience

Question 10

What is and are the pros and cons of theoretical sampling?

Answer 10

Theoretical sampling = sociologist’s position decides what’s important in sampling group e.g. Feminist study women
Strength = suited to aims, researcher will have the necessary skills
Weakness = bias, unrepresentative

e.g. Oakley - study of childbirth

Question 11

What are the PET strengths of lab experiments?

Answer 11

PRACTICAL: Access - take place in researcher’s laboratory e.g. Milgram, Bandura, Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment in University basement
ETHICAL: Consent, right to withdraw
THEORETICAL: Reliable - Asch’s study on conformity has been repeated by many other sociologists

Question 12

What are the PET weaknesses of lab experiments?

Answer 12

PRACTICAL: Time, cost - typically require incentive to take part
ETHICAL: Harm - Milgram’s ‘Obedience’ study 3 PPs had seizures due to stress, many struggled with guilt after the study, often involve deception - Milgram
THEORETICAL: Hawthorne Effect decreases validity - Mayo found that PPs would work harder (output increased) regardless of lighting, heating, rest breaks - just wanted to please Mayo

Question 13

What are the PET strengths of field experiments?

Answer 13

PRACTICAL: Cheaper - natural setting provides all resources
ETHICAL: Confidentiality e.g. we don’t know what school Rosenthal and Jacobson studied
THEORETICAL: Validity - no observers effect e.g. Rosenham’s Pseudo Patient study the nurses assumed their researcher’s records were symptoms of schizophrenia

Question 14

What are the PET weaknesses of field experiments?

Answer 14

PRACTICAL: Access - gatekeepers e.g. Pygmalion had to gain access from headteacher
ETHICAL: Deception - Rosenham told asylums he’ll send some pseudo patients in second study - sent none
THEORETICAL: Unreliable - impacted by extraneous factors - maybe other nurses would’ve become suspicious

Question 15

What are the PET strengths of questionnaires?

Answer 15

PRACTICAL: Access - Connor and Dewson posted 40,000 questionnaires in 14 different unis
ETHICAL: Consent, right to withdraw e.g. telephone questionnaires can ask them to stop
THEORETICAL: Reliable e.g.Census done every 10 years

Question 16

What are the PET weaknesses of questionnaires?

Answer 16

PRACTICAL: Low response rate - Hite in ‘Love, Passion, and Emotional Violence’ sent out 100,000 questionnaires only 45% returned
ETHICAL: Questions may be invasive if on sensitive topic e.g. Schofield’s sexual behaviour study
THEORETICAL: Lack Depth and Verstehen e.g. Rutter was able to create data that correlated achievement to factors such as school size but could not explain these correlations. Also, may not be valid e.g. Census ‘Jedi’ phenomenon

Question 17

What are the PET strengths of structured interviews?

Answer 17

PRACTICAL: No skill needed - can hire interviewers to do it e.g. companies telephone interviews
ETHICAL: Less likely to cause harm as can establish a pre-set list of questions with a pilot study
THEORETICAL: Representative e.g. CSEW Victim survey 50,000 households

Question 18

What are the PET weaknesses of structured interviews?

Answer 18

PRACTICAL: Inflexible e.g. Willis in ‘Learning to Labour’ asked questions he’d never thought to ask with unstructured
ETHICAL: Questions may be intrusive based on topic e.g. Dobash and Dobash ‘Womens Refuge’ unstructured allowed empathy
THEORETICAL: No depth or verstehen e.g. Oakley built rapport through collaborative interviews in her pregnancy study

Question 19

What are the PET strengths of unstructured interviews?

Answer 19

PRACTICAL: Flexible - Willis in ‘Learning to Labour’ ended up asking questions he’d admittedly ‘never think to ask’
ETHICAL: Harm - researcher can discern what questions are appropriate to ask based on conversation, gives room for empathy e.g. Dobash and Dobash ‘Women’s Refuge’
THEORETICAL: Verstehen - Oakley built rapport with PPs of her childbirth study they even called her after the study to give her more info

Question 20

What are the PET weaknesses of unstructured interviews?

Answer 20

PRACTICAL: Requires skill - Becker had to use code of playing dumb, shock tactics, and aggression to get PPs to elaborate in his ‘Ideal Pupil’ study
ETHICAL: Sensitive topics may cause harm
THEORETICAL: Unrepresentative - Willis only studied 12 boys. Also become subjective e.g. Oakley became friends with her PPs even being present at the birth of one of their children

Question 21

What are the PET strengths of overt observations?

Answer 21

PRACTICAL: Can record info in real time without fear of suspicion e.g. Venkatesh ‘Gang Leader For A Day’
ETHICAL: Confidentiality - Whyte used pseudonyms for PPs like ‘Doc’ in ‘Street Corner Society’
THEORETICAL: Validity - takes place in natural environment e.g. Venkatesh saw how gang interacted with neighbourhood

Question 22

What are the PET weaknesses of overt observations?

Answer 22

PRACTICAL: Access - have to be accepted by the group e.g. Thornton found it difficult to study clubbing/raving culture due to age difference between him and target population (counter - hired a younger researcher)
ETHICAL: Morality - Venkatesh knew crimes were taking place even if he wasn’t involved
THEORETICAL: Observers effect - jeopardises validity

Question 23

What are the PET strengths of covert observations?

Answer 23

PRACTICAL: Access e.g. James Patrick had Tim
ETHICAL: Confidentiality - pseudonyms
THEORETICAL: Validity - no observers effect and natural environment

Question 24

What are the PET weaknesses of covert observations?

Answer 24

PRACTICAL: Recording info - Patrick had to rely on memory
ETHICAL: Consent + RTW e.g. Humphrey in ‘Tea Room Trade’ assumed role of lookout to observe strangers and recorded license plates without their knowledge to track them down for interviews a year later - questions legality too
THEORETICAL: Validity - covert observations are typically participant so they hold the risk of the researcher ‘going native’ e.g. Punch started identifying with the Amsterdam Police he was studying - started chasing suspects and searching cars and houses and yelling at people who insulted his ‘colleagues’

Question 25

What are the strengths of private documents?

Answer 25

ETHICAL: Confidentiality and can have anonymity if historic
THEORETICAL: Depth + Verstehen e.g. Anne Frank’s diary gives detailed insight into the daily life of a teenage girl in the holocaust

(PRACTICAL: Can overcome gatekeepers by giving incentives e.g. Thomas and Znaiecki paid people to obtain their letters)

Question 26

What are the weaknesses of private documents?

Answer 26

PRACTICAL: Access - of a private nature so not intended to be shared. Meaning (Scott’s criteria) - people may use inside jokes/slang that make the content inaccessible to someone who doesn’t know the owner of the document e.g. Anne Frank addressing her diary as Kitty. Government private documents may have information censored if access is permitted
ETHICAL: Consent e.g. Hay took notes out of a bin
THEORETICAL: Unrepresentative - only reflects the experience of one person which may be a subjective interpretation,

Question 27

What are the strengths of using public documents?

Answer 27

PRACTICAL: Easy and cheap to access - available online e.g. league tables. Subject matter - information may be difficult to gather through primary research e.g. Durkheim’s Suicide Study
ETHICAL: Consent - research is secondary so original participants have consented
THEORETICAL: Reliable e.g. Census is done every 10 years

Question 28

What are the weaknesses of using public documents?

Answer 28

PRACTICAL: May be difficult to understand meaning if historic - may use outdated language
ETHICAL: Consent - hasn’t been created for the researcher’s intentions
THEORETICAL: May not be authentic - e.g. Wikipedia can be edited by anyone, may not be credible e.g. newspapers and the media often sensationalise real events

Question 29

What are the strengths of using official statistics?

Answer 29

PRACTICAL: Access - freely published and often made easy for general population to understand e.g. league tables. Can identify trends and patterns across time
ETHICAL: Harm - can explore harmful subject matter without risking harm to participants e.g. Durkheim Suicide Study
THEORETICAL: Representative e.g. CSEW interveiws 30,000 people

Question 30

What are the weaknesses of using official statistics?

Answer 30

PRACTICAL: May require maths skills to understand e.g. ONS often uses graphs and charts to breakdown statistics
ETHICAL: Conclusions made may have ethical implications e.g. reputational harm for Protestants in Durkheim’s Suicide Study
THEORETICAL: May lack validity e.g. Census ‘Jedi’ phenomenon