research methods Flashcards

Question

what is a natural experi

Answer 1

The IV is not manipulated, it changes naturally (e.g. studying a culture’s aggression before and after the introduction of TV). The effect on the DV is measured.

Answer 2

These can take place in a laboratory or natural setting. The IV varies due to being a characteristic of the participants (age, gender etc). It cannot be manipulated.

Answer 3

The high level of control allows replication; other researchers can repeat the experiment to check the reliability of the results. As all other variables are controlled, any change in the DV must be caused by the manipulation of the IV, so a cause and effect relationship can be determined.

Answer 4

Ecological validity is high as participants are in their natural environment and the situation is likely to reflect those in real life. Participants may not know they are participating in a study; therefore they are less likely to display demand characteristics.

Answer 5

Natural experiments allow research where the IV can’t be manipulated for ethical or practical purposes. Allows researchers to study real life issues so ecological validity is very high.

Answer 6

Can be carried out under controlled conditions therefore can be replicable and extraneous variables can be controlled.

Answer 7

Lack ecological validity. The setting is artificial and unlike real life. So participants don’t behave naturally and it can be difficult to generalise the results to other situations. Participants are aware they’re being experimented on so may alter their behaviour and display demand characteristics.

Answer 8

Reliability is low because the researcher can’t control the environment completely. So it is difficult to replicate the study to check the consistency of the results. Lack of control means that extraneous and confounding variables could affect the dependent variable, reducing the internal validity of the study.

Answer 9

Random allocation of participants into conditions is not possible, so there may be uncontrolled confounding variables reducing the internal validity of the study. Natural experiments are very difficult, if not impossible, to replicate as exactly the same conditions are unlikely to occur again.

Answer 10

Random allocation of participants into conditions is not possible, so there may be uncontrolled confounding variables reducing the internal validity of the study

Answer 11

1. lab 2. natural 3. field 4. quasi

Answer 12

1. independent groups 2. repeated measures 3. matched pairs

Answer 13

Testing different groups of people for each condition of the experiment. Participants are randomly allocated and take part in one condition only

Answer 14

Order effects are not a problem as participants only do one condition of the study so will not be affected by practice or fatigue. Less likely to display demand characteristics as only taking part one condition.

Answer 15

Participant variables/individual differences could affect the results as there are different groups doing each condition, e.g. one group may have naturally better memories than the other.

Answer 16

Randomly allocating participants to conditions should mean characteristics are evenly spread between the conditions. Use a matched pairs design to make the groups as similar as possible to reduce participant variables.

Answer 17

Testing the same group of people for each condition - the same people are used repeatedly. Participants take part in more than one condition.

Answer 18

Participant variables are not an issue as the same group of participants is used for each condition.

Answer 19

Demand characteristics are more likely Order effects could influence the results as the same group of participants is used for each condition. So performance could get better in the second condition due to practice, or decline due to fatigue.

Answer 20

Counterbalancing – half the group does condition 1 first, the other half does condition 2 first. Then repeat. This minimises order effects such as practice and fatigue.

Answer 21

Participants take part in one condition of the IV but are matched on a relevant variable to someone in the other condition and their data is ‘paired’

Answer 22

Participants take part in one condition of the IV but are matched on a relevant variable to someone in the other condition and their data is ‘paired’

Answer 23

It is time consuming and it is difficult to have groups matched on every characteristic that could affect the results.

Answer 24

Correlational studies are different from experiments in that they look at the relationship between two variables rather than looking for a difference between conditions of an IV. Correlations **measure the strength and direction of relationships between co-variables **and are ***plotted onto a scattergram.***

Answer 25

1. positive 2. negative 3. no correlation

Answer 26

is where one co-variable increases as another co-variable increases, for example, number of ice creams sold increases as the temperature increases.

Answer 27

is where one co-variable decreases as another co-variable increases, for example, heating bill decreases as temperature increases.

Answer 28

no evident relationship between variables

Answer 29

The type/direction of a correlation (e.g., positive or negative) will be indicated by the + or – sign. The strength of a correlation is indicated by the value. The closer to ‘0’ the weaker the correlation, the closer to ‘1’ the stronger the correlation

Answer 30

Hypotheses written for correlations are not the same as those for experiments. There is no IV and DV in a correlation The hypothesis has to clearly state the relationship between the two variables and the variables must be operationalised. They can still be directional or non-directional, or null. **Directional**: There will be a positive correlation/relationship between the price of a chocolate bar and the tastiness rating /20 (Directional can be positive or negative correlation) **Non-directional**: There will be a correlation between the price of a chocolate bar and the tastiness rating/20 **Null**: There will be no correlation between the price of a chocolate bar and the tastiness rating/20

Answer 31

😊No manipulation required: Can be used to research topics that are sensitive/ otherwise would be unethical, as no deliberate manipulation of variables is required. 😊 Useful technique: Correlations can be very useful as a preliminary technique, allowing researchers to identify a link that can be further investigated through more controlled research.

Answer 32

**No cause and effect:** Correlations only identify a relationship they **do not identify which variable causes which **so cannot establish cause and effect. It is not clear which variable has caused the change in the other. There might also be a third variable present which is influencing one of the co-variables, which is not considered. **Correlations can only measure linear relationships.** For example, correlations can’t show the relationship between temperature and aggression as it is curved. As ***temperature increases, aggression levels increase up to a point. Then any further increases in temperature leads to a decline in aggression***

Answer 33

involve watching and recording behaviour. They are can be used as part of an experiment as a means of measuring the dependent variable so are often a technique which is used alongside other methods.

Answer 34

1. controlled 2. naturalsitic 3. overt 4. covert 5. participnat 6. non-participant

Answer 35

These take place in an artificial laboratory setting. The researcher manipulates some aspect of the environment.

Answer 36

High level of control. The behaviour being observed can be isolated and the environment can be manipulated to make measurement of this behaviour easier and more objective.

Answer 37

The environment is artificial so behaviour observed may be unnatural and not reflect how people behave in real life (ecological validity is low).

Answer 38

These take place in a real life, natural environment where no manipulation is made and everything has been left as it is normally.

Answer 39

Behaviour observed is likely to be natural so findings can be generalised to everyday life (ecological validity is high).

Answer 40

The environment can’t be controlled so extraneous variables could be affecting the participants’ behaviour. Difficult to replicate as exactly the same situation is unlikely to reoccur.

Answer 41

The participants know their behaviour is being watched and recorded and for what purpose.

Answer 42

Ethically sound as participants know they are being observed and will have given informed consent. They are able to withdraw from the study at any point.

Answer 43

Participants may not behave naturally if they are aware of being observed. They may show demand characteristics and change their behaviour.

Answer 44

The participants are not aware they are being observed. The observer may have a hidden viewpoint or be behind a two-way mirror. The observer may disguise themselves as a member of the group being observed and record via a secret camera.

Answer 45

Validity is high because completely natural behaviour will be observed – they show less participant reactivity.

Answer 46

Lack of informed consent means this type of observation raises ethical issues. However, it is ethically acceptable to observe people without their knowledge as long as they are in a public place.

Answer 47

The researchers become part of the group or situation being observed.

Answer 48

Provides greater insights into behaviour that may not be gained by an ‘outsider’.

Answer 49

Objectivity of observation is affected by becoming part of the group being observed. The observer is likely to form their own opinions about the participants which could affect their interpretation of their behaviour.

Answer 50

The researchers do not become actively involved in the behaviour being studied and observe from a distance.

Answer 51

Lack of direct involvement ensures greater objectivity when interpreting behaviour.

Answer 52

Data lacks the richness provided by participant observation, such as feelings and motivations of participants.

Answer 53

When a researcher conducts an observation, they need to design the observation carefully to ensure they are planned and they measure what they set out too. Some decisions will depend upon the type of observation and the nature of the behaviour being observed for example.

Answer 54

1. structures 2. unstructed

Answer 55

The researcher may simply want to write down everything they see.

Answer 56

Tend to produce qualitative data which **collects rich, in-depth and detailed data** on behaviour. **Greater risk of observer bias as this is no objective behavioural categories** – so interpretation and recording of behaviour may be influenced by the observer – It is more subjective.

Answer 57

The researcher quantify their observations using a pre-determined list of behaviours known as a behavioural categories.

Answer 58

involve breaking down the target behaviour into components that can be observed and measures. This involves deciding which specific behaviours should be examined and creating a ‘checklist’ before an observation.

Answer 59

Using a structured observation with behavioural categories produces quantitative data which is easier to analyse and compare The use of behavioural categories is more objective. There is less room for interpretation of different behaviours and therefore less likely to be biased due to pre-determined categories. Lacks depth and detail, may miss important details.

Answer 60

1. event 2. time

Answer 61

This involves counting the number of times a behaviour occurs in target individual or individuals. It is a ‘frequency count’ for each behaviour. The chronological order is not recorded.

Answer 62

Event sampling is useful when the target behaviour happens infrequently and could be missed if not used and in theory every behaviour should be recorded If the specified event is too complex, may overlook/miss important details e.g., if there are too many behaviours happening at the same time, some may not be coded.

Answer 63

The observer decides in advance that an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals (e.g. 10 minutes every hour, or at 30 second intervals) and records the occurrence of the specified behaviour during that period only.

Answer 64

Can reduce the number of observations needed if only using specified time frames in a set period. If sampling specific times only – may not be representative as a whole and may miss behaviours.

Answer 65

* Observers should familiarise themselves and be trained with the behavioural categories, this could be part of a pilot study. * The observers would then observe the same behaviour at the same time, but independently of each other. * Their observations should be compared * This should be analysed using a correlation and if 0.8 or above it Is considered reliable.

Answer 66

A questionnaire is a set of pre-determined questions for participants to respond to. They could be completed in the presence of the researcher or could be sent through the post or emailed for participants to complete on their own and send back. Although questionnaires are often completed anonymously – it is always important that confidentiality of response is maintained.

Answer 67

* When constructing a questionnaire it’s important to make sure it is something that people will actually complete and which will provide useful data. * It is important to have clarity of questions – clearly understood and unambiguous. Questions within a questionnaire should avoid all of the following: jargon, double-barrelled questions (two questions in one), and emotive language which indicates an author’s perspective. * A pilot study could be used to check this. * What types of question to use (open vs closed)

Answer 68

* Open questions invite participants to provide their own answers, they do not have a fixed range of responses. * Closed questions have a predetermined range of answers, e.g. multiple choice, ‘yes no’ questions, and rating and Likert scales. Here are some examples.

Answer 69

A strength of questionnaires is that, if the researcher is not present, particularly if the questionnaire is anonymous, there is** less chance of researcher bias**, because unlike in interviews and other methods, the reduced involvement of the researcher means there is less influence on the answers and behaviours of participants, enhancing validity. A second strength of questionnaires generally is that they are** cost-effective and time-efficient way** of gathering data as they can be administered quickly to large numbers of participants at the same time. This could enhance the generalisability of the data if there is a large data set.

Answer 70

However, although they can be administered quickly, **response rates can be poor when administered in the absence of the researcher**. It can then be ***difficult to generalise*** findings as people who bother to return a questionnaire may be psychologically different (e.g. more organised or motivated) to those who don’t. So the results only represent one type of person. However, one issue with questionnaires is that participants **may answer in socially desirable ways**, particularly If the responses are not anonymous. This is particularly a problem when researching a sensitive topic such as sexual behaviour or drug taking activity. This questions the validity of the data obtained if it is not their true/honest answer to the questions.

Answer 71

1. structured 2. unstructures 3. semi-structured

Answer 72

identical pre-determined questions are read to participants, with the interviewer writing down the answers.

Answer 73

an informal discussion on a particular topic. Interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow-up questions. No preplanning, interviewer responds to answers

Answer 74

– a combination of structured and unstructured techniques. There is a set of pre-determined questions that all participants are asked, the interviewer can then add in additional questions depending on their answers, can be tailored to the individual

Answer 75

When planning an interview decisions need to made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer. Several interpersonal variables may affect this decision: * Gender, age and ethnicity of the interviewer can affect participants’ answers and what they wish to reveal. * Personal characteristics – use of formal language, accent and appearance could affect how participants respond to them. **Interviewer training** is also an important part of designing interviews. Interviewers need to be able to** listen and learn when to speak and when not to**. They also need to be comfortable with allowing participants time to think about and phrase their answers without jumping in to fill the silence. Method of data collection also needs to be considered. Interviews can be filmed or recorded, but participants need to be informed of this. Some people would find cameras or tape recorders off-putting. The interviewer could make notes; However, this could be subjective and some information may be missed. If recorded, a transcript can be made or it can be replayed to check data. Interviews could be analysed using content or thematic analysis

Answer 76

In comparison to questionnaires, the presence of the researcher means that **any misunderstood questions can be explained and individual questions may be adapted so they are understood by all participants.** Plus interviewee answers can be clarified. However, the increased presence of the researcher in comparison to questionnaires means that **participants may be affected by investigator effects.** For example, women may be less willing to talk about sex with male interviewers. Additionally, the presence of the researcher may mean that participants may not answer truthfully and may answer in socially desirable ways, affecting the validity of the data.

Answer 77

* Standardised questions in the same sequence to all participants, more easily replicated to test reliability. * Limited range of questions - easy to analyse and compare

Answer 78

* May **have investigator effects** due to researchers working within their own preconceived agenda through set questions. * **Less flexibility**: Does not allow for follow up questions/further exploration which can limit the validity of the data. * Doesn’t tailor to the individual

Answer 79

* Reduced investigator effects: the open question schedule means that the investigator does not control the direction of the conversation to meet their own agenda, enhancing validity * More flexibility: allows for further insight/exploration with follow up questions.

Answer 80

* As questions may vary, they are more difficult to compare and analyse and more difficult to replicate. * Can also be more time consuming and require specialist training.

Answer 81

* Not as restricted as a structured interview, can allow for follow up questions and greater insight.

Answer 82

* As questions may vary, they are still more difficult to compare and analyse and replicate than structured interviews.

Answer 83

A case study is an in-depth study of a single individual or small group of individuals. Case studies typically involve a variety of techniques to gain information. Some of these methods will gain qualitative data such as using interviews, questionnaires, observations – or a combination of all three. Case studies may also involve psychological testing to assess a person’s capabilities and may also produce quantitative data. They are often longitudinal following the individual/group for a long period of time.

Answer 84

One strength of case studies is that they gain rich, detailed insight into the person or group under investigation. Furthermore, they are important for investigating aspects of human behaviour and experience that cannot be conducted due to practical or ethical reasons e.g., such as an individual with brain damage. This is a strength as they can provide an accurate and exhaustive measure of what the study is hoping to measure.

Answer 85

One key limitation of case studies is that they lack generalisability This is because in addition to small sample size the subjects of case studies are typically unusual or special in some way, making them of an interest for an investigation. This is a limitation as it questions the usefulness of the findings when trying to apply to a broader population.  An additional limitation of case studies is that because they are unusual by nature, replication is not possible. This is a limitation as it means that case studies lack reliability  A further limitation of case studies is that they are subjective. This is because the case study’s researcher may become so involved with the study that they exhibit bias in their interpretation and presentation of the data. Furthermore, case studies may rely on data such as personal accounts from family and friends. This is a limitation as it could question the validity of the data obtained.

Answer 86

a **way of analysing qualitative data**. It is used to i***ndirectly study behaviour by examining communications*** e.g., advertisements, books, films, interview transcripts. For example, researchers have analysed on-line dating profiles to investigate whether men and women are looking for different things in a potential partner or gender stereotypes in TV adverts for children. It is **important for researchers using content analysis to have their research questions formulated, so that they know exactly what their content analysis will focus on**. Researchers must familiarise themselves with the data before conducting any analysis,

Answer 87

This involves **converting *qualitative* data into *quantitative* data** Coding is an important step in conducting content analysis and involves the **researcher developing categories for thedata to be classified**. Qualitative data can be extensive in its nature, for example, interview transcripts, and so coding can be helpful in reaching succinct conclusions about the data. These categories provide a framework to convert qualitative material into quantitative data, which can then be used for further (statistical) analysis.

Answer 88

**Step 1: **Aims and Hypothesis Decide on the aims and hypotheses for the research **Step 2: **Sample Material Decide on the appropriate sample material that will be used for the content analysis **Step 3:** Coding Develop a coding system to categorise the information into meaningful units **Step 4: **Pilot Study Generally a pilot study may be used to establish reliability in the coding system and make adjustments as necessary **Step 5:** Analysis Analyse the data using the coding system interpreting them in regards to the hypothesis e.g., conducting a tally, conversion into graphs. **Step 6: **Check Reliability Check the reliability of the content analysis by correlating one researchers scores with another’s. (Inter-rater reliability)

Answer 89

This is a type of content analysis which also **analyses qualitative data** but is not worried about quantifying it, **focusing instead on identifying themes or idea’s in the data** (remains qualitative). A theme is an idea or notion and can be explicit (e.g., stating that you are feeling depressed) or implicit (for example, using a metaphor of a black cloud for feeling depressed). **Thematic analysis will produce further qualitative data but this will be much more refined. ** For example, a research conducted interviews with several participants about their childhood school experiences. These may run to many pages when in a text form (called a transcript). An example, of what they might be looking for is references to feelings about teachers. References could be coded as teacher positive (TP) or teacher negative (TN) for example.

Answer 90

Step 1: **Transcription** The analysis of qualitative data often starts with collecting the data, and transcribing it (writing it out). Step 2:** Data Familiarisation** Researcher familiarises themselves with the data – reading and reviewing in detail Step 3: **Reviewing Themes** Whilst reviewing data - Generate initial codes and use these to look for themes in the data (these are recurring patterns which run through and link the data). This can be done by colour coding/initialling certain themes as the data is reviewed. Step 4: **Data Saturation** Themes may change as more data is analysed and new themes emerge. This means themes are constantly adjusted and data is read and re-read until there is data saturation and no more themes can be identified. Step 5: **Write up** When the report is written up the themes are categorised and discussed and the data within each category provides evidence for the themes e.g., through quotes.

Answer 91

***Content Analysis using Coding*** - Converts qualitative data to quantitative data - Coding is decided before analysis/review of the data (it is pre-established) ***Thematic analysis*** - Data remains in qualitative form - Codes/themes emerge from the analysis of the data (they are not pre-established)

Answer 92

Content analysis is particularly helpful **when conducting research that would otherwise be considered unethical**. Any data that has already been released into the public domain is available for analysis such as newspaper articles, adverts, meaning that explicit consent is not required. Furthermore, it can be **used to complement other research methods and can be particularly useful as a longitudinal tool and looking at trends and changes over time.** A strength of both content analysis and thematic analysis is **high ecological validity**. Much of the analysis that takes place within these research methods are basing their conclusions on observations of real‐life behaviour and written and visual communications in real life contexts. For example, analysis can take place on books people have read or programmes that people have watched on television. Additionally, since records of these qualitative sources remain, **replication of the content/thematic analysis can be conducted**. If results were found to be consistent on re‐analysis then they would be said to be reliable, and different individuals can be used to assess inter-rater reliability.

Answer 93

There is a possibility that content analysis can produce findings that are very **subjective**. This is because researchers have to make decisions about behaviours/themes to look for and how to categorise the data. Additionally,** the researcher may interpret some things in a completely different manner from how they were intended,** due to their own *preconceptions*, judgements of biases as it is analysed outside the context in which it occurred. As a result, the validity of the findings can be questioned. It can be **argued to be a description of behaviour rather than explanation of it**. As it only describes the data, content analysis cannot extract any deeper meaning or explanation for the data patterns arising, and therefore causality is difficult to establish.

Answer 94

A pilot study is a small trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design. This allows the researchers to make any improvements or adjustments to design or procedures before the main investigation.

Answer 95

Pilot studies are useful because they allow a researcher to** identify potential issues within their research and modify their procedure if necessary**. This will save time/money in the long run of the research. The few participants who take part in the pilot study can also be asked for their insights into their experience of taking part, e.g. did they guess the aim of the investigation.

Answer 96

1. opportunity 2. random 3. stratified 4. systematic 5. volunteer

Answer 97

People who are most convenient or most available are recruited, e.g. people walking by in the street, students at a school

Answer 98

Easiest method and takes less time to locate and recruit the sample than other methods.

Answer 99

Sample is biased and unrepresentative of the target population because some members are excluded, e.g. asking people who walk past you in town on a week day excludes those at work or college.

Answer 100

This is where each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected. E.g. give all members of a population and number and use a computer to randomly select numbers to choose the sample.

Answer 101

There is no bias in the selection, increasing the chances of getting a representative sample which can be generalised.

Answer 102

Can be time consuming to get a list of all members of a population and allocate them all a number. Unbiased selection doesn’t guarantee an unbiased sample; all females could be randomly selected by chance. Also not everyone selected will be able to be contacted or will be able to take part.

Answer 103

Subgroups (‘strata’) within a population are identified, e.g. males/females, age groups, ethnicities. Participants are randomly selected from each of the strata in proportion to how common they are in the population.

Answer 104

The sample should be able to be generalised because all the subgroups in the target population are proportionally represented. As random sampling is used to select participants from the sub-groups of the population it should be free from bias.

Answer 105

Detailed knowledge of population characteristics is required which may not be available – there may be hidden subgroups the researcher is not aware of, or who are not accessible. The dividing of a population into strata and then randomly selecting from each can be time consuming.

Answer 106

A predetermined system is used to select participants, e.g. every 10th person from a phonebook.

Answer 107

Unbiased because participants are selected using an objective system. Therefore the sample should be representative of the population and able to be generalised.

Answer 108

Not truly unbiased/random (the first person on the list is unable to be selected) unless you select a random number and start with this person.

Answer 109

The researcher advertises for participants, e.g. in a newspaper, on a noticeboard or on the internet. The participants are self-selecting.

Answer 110

Quick and easy for the researcher as all they need to do is create the advert and wait for participants to respond.

Answer 111

The sample will be biased and unrepresentative as people who like to volunteer for things are likely to be psychologically different to non-volunteers As volunteers are eager to please the chance of demand characteristics is increased.

Answer 112

* Enough detail for the person to give informed consent – they should know exactly what will be expected of them, and any potential for psychological or physiological harm. * They should be informed of their right to withdraw at any point during or after the procedure * They should be reassured that their results will remain anonymous and confidential * They should be given the opportunity to ask any questions they may have

Answer 113

* They should be thanked for their time * The full aim of the study should be revealed, and the results expected explained * They should be reminded of their right to withdraw their results and that their results are confidential * They should be given the opportunity to ask questions

Answer 114

1. In the peer review process, a paper is submitted to a journal and evaluated by several reviewers, which are specialists/experts/experienced in the field of study. 2. Elements of the study e.g., methodology, designs and conclusions will be scrutinised and any problems will be identified and discussed. Work is considered in terms of its validity, significance and originality 3. After critiquing the paper the reviewers submit their thoughts to the editor. 4. Then, based on the commentaries from the reviewers, the editor decides whether to publish the paper, make suggestions for additional changes that could lead to publication, or reject the paper.

Answer 115

1. To validate the quality and relevance of the research: to ensure that the published research is of a high quality, contributes to the field of research (Is significant wider context) and is accurately presented (e.g., no plagiarism), helping to enhance credibility. 2. To allocate research funding for proposed projects. 3. To suggest amendments/make improvements to the research article

Answer 116

Can help to **establish validity and accuracy** of research which contributes to enhancing credibility of psychology as subject.

Answer 117

* Peer review is **subject to bias and there are problems with objectivity.** Reviewers find it hard to remain purely objective due to their own education, experience and preconceived notions. **Work that is consistent with an existing theory is more likely to be accepted for publication**. Peer reviewers may be strongly opposed to the views expressed in the report which could influence their views on the quality of the research. There is also **institution bias where reviewers may be influenced by the university the research has come from**, e.g. assuming that work from a prestigious institution will be high quality. * File drawer phenomenon - **Peer review tends to favour positive results** (where the results support the hypothesis). Many negative findings (where the null hypothesis is accepted) are not published. This may give a false impression of the strength of evidence for a particular theory. * Burying ground breaking research:** Peer review can act to maintain the status quo and prevent potentially revolutionary research from being published**. This is because science is generally very conservative and resistant to large changes in opinion – what we in psychology would refer to as a paradigm shift.

Answer 118

**refers to the consistency of research**. If a study is repeated using the same method, design and procedure and similar results are obtained then the results are said to be reliable.

Answer 119

1. internal 2. external

Answer 120

is the extent to which a study or test is consistent within itself, e.g. if a word list is being used to test memory then all the words should be equally difficult to remember.

Answer 121

is the extent to which a test measures consistently over time, e.g. an IQ test should give the same results if the same person completes it on more than one occasion.

Answer 122

* **Split-half method **– measures internal reliability by splitting a test into two and having the same participants do both halves. If the two halves of the test give similar results this indicates that the test has internal reliability. * **Test-retest method** – measures external reliability by giving the same test to the same participants on two occasions. If the same result is obtained then reliability is established. *** Inter-rater reliability** – a means of assessing whether different observers are viewing and rating behaviour in the same way. A **correlational analysis of all the observers’ scores is conducted. A strong positive correlation indicates that they are observing and categorising behaviour consistently.**

Answer 123

* Reliability can be improved by** developing more consistent forms of measurement** and by **clearly operationalising variables. ** * **Inter-rater reliability** can be improved by training observers in the observation techniques being used and making sure everyone agrees with them. **Behaviour categories should be objectively operationalised.** This means all observers know exactly what behaviour they are looking for. For example, “aggressive behaviour” is subjective and not operationalised, but “pushing” is objective and operationalised.

Answer 124

refers to the degree to which a study measures what it claims to and the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond research settings.

Answer 125

1. internal 2. external

Answer 126

is the extent to which results are due to the manipulation of the IV and have not been affected by confounding variables such as investigator effects, demand characteristics and bias

Answer 127

is the extent to which the results can be generalised to other settings (ecological validity), other people (population validity) and over time (temporal validity).

Answer 128

* **Face validity** – does the test simply look like it tests what it’s meant to test? * **Concurrent validity** – correlating scores on a test with another test which is known to be valid. A strong positive correlation would suggest good concurrent validity. * **Predictive validity **– look at how well a test predicts future behaviour, e.g. do average GCSE results accurately predict A level results? * **Temporal validity **– do research findings remain true over time?

Answer 129

* Internal validity can be improved by reducing investigator effects, minimising demand characteristics (e.g. by hiding the true aim of the investigation), using standardised instructions and a random sample. * External validity can be improved by setting experiments in more naturalistic settings and ensuring tasks have mundane realism (reflect tasks which occur in real life).

Answer 130

One or more judges with relevant expertise assess whether the instrument is appropriate

Answer 131

Experts make suggestions based on their expertise as to how the test could be improved

Answer 132

Similar to face validity, but more rigorous procedure detailed and systematic examination of all components of test against specific standards

Answer 133

Correlation of two sets of test scores one on the established test and one on the new test, taken at the same time and testing for statistically significant coefficient.

Answer 134

Correlation taken between two sets of scores taken at different points in time and testing for a statistically significant coefficient.

Answer 135

Compare and modify the test by comparing against specific standards until it is agreed the content is appropriate

Answer 136

If the coefficient isn’t high enough, then the new test would need to be further refined to improve its internal validity

Answer 137

Could add further predictors so controlling for other factors e.g. Motivation and parental support

Answer 138

To be scientific research should be **OBJECTIVE** and free from bias. Different people should be able to look at the same data independently and draw exactly the same conclusions. Gathering quantitative data increases objectivity. Variables should be clearly defined and operationalised so it is clear exactly how they were manipulated or measured. **FALSIFICATION** is an important part of the scientific process. A theory or hypothesis needs to be able to be empirically tested in order to have credibility. A theory can be accepted as being validated if research evidence supports it but one finding of it not being true leads to its falsification. For a study to be scientific there should be a **MEASURABLE** variable. This is difficult in psychology as many of the factors studied are unobservable, e.g. memory. Therefore a valid measurement is needed, e.g. with a memory test. To be scientific a study should be able to be **REPLICATED** in exactly the same conditions. Therefore research needs to be tightly controlled and free from extraneous variables.

Answer 139

* This is a paradigm –** a shared set of assumptions about psychology and the methods appropriate to its study**. A paradigm dictates what is studied and researched and the types of questions that are asked. * Scientists collect data that fits the current paradigm, creating bias where scientific journals publish confirmatory examples of research rather than opposing ones. Occasionally a paradigm is replaced with a new paradigm which emerges from a minority position. So scientific advancement occurs through paradigm shifts.

Answer 140

1. **Title** Should be clear, relevant and informative 2. **Abstract** A summary of the research which allows the reader to get a brief overview of the research so they know if it is worth reading further. Generally consists of two sentences each on the theoretical background (previous research), aims and hypotheses, methodology, results, conclusions and suggestions for future research. 3. **Introduction** Explains why the study was conducted. General theoretical background, previous research and controversies relating to the area under investigation are covered. 4. **Aim**(s) Stated clearly and precisely. ‘The aim of this study was to investigate ………….’ 5. **Hypotheses** The alternative and null hypotheses are stated clearly and precisely. 6. **Procedure** An outline of what was done in enough detail that the study can be replicated. Materials (e.g. questionnaires) are included in appendices. There are several subsections: * Design – choice of method (e.g. lab experiment), choice of design (e.g. repeated measures), identification of variables, ethical considerations. * Participants – target population, sampling method (e.g. opportunity sampling), details of sample, how participants were allocated to conditions * Apparatus/materials – description of any technical equipment used. Materials such as tests/questionnaires etc go in appendices. * Standardised procedure – step-by-step procedure allowing replication of the study. May include standardised instructions. * Controls – details of controls such as counterbalancing, single- or double-blind procedures, control of extraneous variables. 7. **Findings** What was found in terms of data collected. Raw data is referenced here and placed in the appendices. * Descriptive statistics – measure of central tendency and measure of dispersion and results summarised in an appropriate graph. * Inferential statistics – reasons for selecting a particular test. Actual calculations placed in appendices. Outcome of statistical analysis is given with critical values of the test, the significance level and whether it was a one-tailed or two-tailed test. Outcome explained in terms of acceptance and rejection of the alternative and null hypothesis. 8. **Discussion** Findings are explained in terms of aims and hypotheses and discussed in relation to previous research findings. Limitations such as flawed measurement techniques, poor procedures are outlined and modifications are suggested. Implications and applications of the study are presented and ideas for further research suggested. 9. **Conclusion** A concise paragraph that summarises key conclusions drawn from the study. 10. **References** All references cited in the report. Reference lists are created to allow readers to locate original sources themselves. Each citation in a reference list includes various pieces of information including the: 1) Name of the author(s) 2) Year published 3) Title 4) City published 5) Publisher 6) Pages used Generally, Harvard Reference List citations follow this format: * Last name, First Initial. (Year published). Title. City: Publisher, Page(s). Therefore your text book would be Flanagan, C. and Berry, D. (2016) A level Psychology. Cheltenham: Illuminate publishing 11. **Appendices** Contain full instructions given to participants, raw data, calculations, materials

Answer 141

data is data in the form of numbers or quantities. Anything that measures how much, how long, how many etc. is quantitative. Closed questions gather quantitative data and in an observational study a tally of behavioural categories is quantitative.

Answer 142

that it is easy to analyse using descriptive statistics and statistical tests. Numerical data is also objective – different people will interpret it in the same way.

Answer 143

conclusions drawn may not be valid, as participants and their unique experiences and feelings are simplified to numbers.

Answer 144

is non-numerical data, usually in the form of words but can also be pictures or images. Qualitative data often concerns what participants think or feel. Open questions in questionnaires and interviews gather qualitative data. In an observation researchers can describe what they see – this would be qualitative.

Answer 145

gives rich detail and may be more valid – participants are not restricted in their answers. It can’t be counted or quantified but can be turned into quantitative data by placing the data in categories and counting the frequency.

Answer 146

this analysis is difficult to do without subjectivity and bias.

Answer 147

comes directly from first-hand experience. So it is new data collected by the researcher in a study.

Answer 148

The main strength of this is **the control the researcher has**. They can design the data collection so it is valid and fits the aims and hypothesis of the study.

Answer 149

designing a study, recruiting participants, conducting a study and analysing data is time consuming and needs to be funded.

Answer 150

collected for another purpose, e.g. data the researcher collected for a previous study or data collected by another researcher. It also includes Government statistics or data held by an institution such as a hospital.

Answer 151

The benefit of this is that it is simpler and cheaper to access pre-existing data.

Answer 152

the data may not exactly fit the needs of the study.

Answer 153

involves combining and analysing data from lots of smaller studies in a particular research area into one large data set. This **allows the identification of trends and relationships that wouldn’t be possible from individual smaller studies**

Answer 154

particularly useful when a number of smaller studies have found contradictory results in order to get a clearer view of the overall picture.

Answer 155

1. mean 2. median 3. mode

Answer 156

is calculated by adding up all the bits of data and dividing by the number there are

Answer 157

It is the most sensitive measure of central tendency because it takes account of all the values in the data set. However, the mean is easily distorted by extreme values, so may not represent the data as a whole. **The mean is appropriate when there are no extreme scores. **

Answer 158

is the middle value when the data set is put in numerical order.

Answer 159

If there is an even number of bits of data there will be two central values so need to be added together and divided by 2. The median is **not affected by extreme values so can be useful when the mean is inappropriate** (i.e. when there are extreme scores). However, it isn’t as sensitive as the mean.

Answer 160

the value that occurs most frequently

Answer 161

. If two values are equally common the data is bi-modal – both scores are the mode. This is the only measure of central tendency which can be used when the data is in categories. However, it is not useful when there are several modes.

Answer 162

These are ‘averages’ and are ways of calculating a typical value for a set of data. The average can be calculated in different ways, each one appropriate for a different situation.

Answer 163

These give information about the variability (spread) of scores within a data set.

Answer 164

1. range 2. standard deviation

Answer 165

calculated by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value in a data set. It is easy to calculate but is affected by extreme values and doesn’t show the distribution of the data (e.g. are most values clustered around the mean with one extreme value).

Answer 166

**shows the average distance between each piece of data from the mean**. The *bigger the number, the greater the variability in the data*. You won’t be asked to calculate standard deviation in the exam, but may be asked what it shows. A SD does **consider all the scores** not just highest and lowest **so is more accurate**. A small standard deviation demonstrates greater consistency and that participants were responding in a similar way (scores clustered around mean). A larger standard deviation demonstrates a greater variability in the data and participants responding differently (scores not clustered around mean)

Answer 167

To convert a percentage to a decimal, remove the % sign and move the decimal point two places to the left. 60% is 60.0. Move the decimal place two points to the left = 0.6

Answer 168

Converting a decimal to a fraction Look at the number of decimal places in your number (number of digits after the point). E.g. 0.6 has one decimal place, 0.81 has two decimal places, and 0.275 has three. If there is one decimal place you divide by 10. E.g. 6/10 If there are two decimal places you divide by 100. E.g. 81/100 If there are three decimal places you divide by 1000. E.g. 275/1000

Answer 169

proportional to

Answer 170

weak approximation

Answer 171

Bar charts **allow data in the form of categories to be compared**. Categories are placed on the x (horizontal) axis. The y (vertical) axis can show totals, means or percentages. **The columns/bars should all be the same width and separated by spaces because the variable on the x-axis is not continuous**. Bar charts can display two values together, e.g. male and female consumption of chocolate as shown by gender and age.

Answer 172

These look a bit like bar charts but are different because **they are used for continuous data** (e.g. scores on a test) rather than that in the form of categories. The scores are placed along the x-axis and the frequency is on the y-axis. There should be no spaces between the bars and their width should be consistent.

Answer 173

These are similar to histograms in that the data on the x-axis is continuous. Rather than drawing bars, a line is drawn from where the top of the bar would be in a histogram. A frequency polygon is used when you want to compare two or more frequency distributions on the same graph.

Answer 174

Scattergrams display the correlation (relationship) between two co-variables. One of these co-variables is placed on the X axis, the other is placed on the Y axis. each point on a scattergram respresnt an individual particpiant

Answer 175

* The mean, median and mode are all at the same midpoint. * When plotted on a graph there is a symmetrical, bell shaped curve. * The dispersion of scores either side of the midpoint is consistent.

Answer 176

mean is always higher than the median and mode in a positive skew.

Answer 177

distribution is where there are a few low extreme scores. These outliers affect the **mean**, which **is always lower than the median and mode in a negative skew**.

Answer 178

1. Looking for a difference rather than an association. E.g. older people remember more than younger people is a difference 2. Experiment would have used related design (repeated measures or matched pairs) 3. Finally, the data should be nominal (categories)

Answer 179

 Calculated value which will be worked out by you  Critical value which will be provided in a critical value table  N which is number of scores in the study (Ignoring any 0’s)  Whether the hypothesis is one tailed (directional) or two tailed (non-directional) in order to determine the level of significance.

Answer 180

* Step 1: State the hypothesis. Participants will rate their happiness higher in July than in January. This is a directional hypothesis so we require a one-tailed test. (If it was non-directional it would be a two-tailed test). * Step 2: Record the data and work out the sign. Put each pair of data in a table and add a + or – depending on the difference between the two scores. * Step 3: Find the calculated value. S is the symbol for the sign test. To calculate S you add up the number of + and add up the number of - and select the smaller value. Here we have 10+ and 3-. So S=3 * Step 4: Find the critical value of S.  N = total number of scores (ignoring any 0 differences). So in this case N=13 (with one score omitted).  The hypothesis is directional, so a one-tailed test is used. Look at the critical values table. We use the column headed 0.05 for a one-tailed test and the row which begins with our N value. So our critical value is 3. * Step 5: Is the result significant? If the calculated value is equal to or less than the critical value the result is significant. Calculated value (3) is equal to the critical value (3) so the difference between the two sets of scores is significant. Therefore we can conclude that people are happier in the summer than in winter. How certain are we? The level of significance we used was 0.05. This is a probability value and means that there is a 0.05 (5%) probability that the results happened by chance and time of year has no effect on happiness. (Sometimes researchers want to be even more certain and use 0.01 – significance at this level means there’s only a 1% probability that the results were due to chance).

Answer 181

1. nominal 2. ordinal 3. interval/radio

Answer 182

Nominal data is data in the form of categories, it is discrete and can only fall in one of the categories

Answer 183

Ordinal data is ordered in some way. Ordinal data does not have equal intervals between each unit.

Answer 184

**involves standardised measurement units like time, weight, temperature, distance.** These have equal measurement intervals, e.g. 10 seconds is twice as long as 5 seconds. Interval and ratio data are classed together as they apply to the same statistical tests but in theory they are slightly different:  **Interval data doesn’t have a true 0 point** (e.g. zero degrees Celsius doesn’t mean there is an absence of temperature.  **Ratio data has an absolute zero point** (e.g. someone who scores 0 when remembering a list of 10 words would have remembered none correctly).

Answer 185

 Interval data doesn’t have a true 0 point (e.g. zero degrees Celsius doesn’t mean there is an absence of temperature.  Ratio data has an absolute zero point (e.g. someone who scores 0 when remembering a list of 10 words would have remembered none correctly).

Answer 186

Statistical testing is used to determine whether a difference or association found in a particular study is statistically significant. **A statistically significant result is one where there is a low probability that chance factors were responsible** for any observed difference or correlation in the variables tested. A significant result** allows you to accept your alternative hypothesis** and reject the null hypothesis. It is done so at a level/ probability called as significance level (p-value).

Answer 187

, the 5% level of significance will be used (p≤0.05) We tend to use this value as it best balances the risk of getting a type 1 and type 2 errors.

Answer 188

this is **when the null hypothesis is rejected as a result of the statistical analysis but actually the null hypothesis was correct.** When p≤0.05 there is a 5% of making this error. If result is significant at p≤0.01 there is only a 1% chance of making a type 1 error. We are ***likely to make a type 1 error when the p-value is too lenient.***

Answer 189

this is when the null hypothesis is accepted, but actually the null hypothesis was incorrect. This tends to occur when the p-value is too strict.

Answer 190

1st collumn - type of hypothesis. difference, correlation 2nd collumn - level of measurement. nominal, ordinal, interval/ratio [under difference], then ordinal, interval/ratio 3rd collumn - **independnet groups**. chi-squared, mann-whitney, independent t-test 4th collum- **repeated measures**. sign test, wilcoxon test, related t-test, spearman's rho, pearson's product moment

Answer 191

if the calculated value is** equal to or greater than the critical value** then the results are significant and the alternative hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected.

Answer 192

if the calculated value is equal to or less than the critical value then the results are significant and the alternative hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected.

Answer 193

* Test of difference * Related design * Nominal Data

Answer 194

* Test of difference * Independent/unrelated design * Nominal data

Answer 195

* Test of difference * Independent/unrelated design * Ordinal data

Answer 196

* Test of difference * Related design * Ordinal

Answer 197

* Tests of difference * Related t-test for related design, unrelated t-test for unrelated design * Interval data

Answer 198

The Spearman’s rho (Rs) test can be applied to correlational data which is at least ordinal to find out whether the relationship found is strong enough to be significant.** If Rs is equal to or greater than the critical value the relationship is significant**. (You just looking at the number and ignore + or -. This tells you whether the relationship is positive or negative).

Answer 199

Another statistical test which is used to analyse correlations is Pearson’s product moment (r) test. This can be applied to correlational data which is at least interval/ratio to find out whether the relationship found is strong enough to be significant. If r is equal to or greater than the critical value the relationship is significant.

Answer 200

***Design*** An independent measures design will be used with a group of left-handed participants and a group of right- handed participants. The IV is whether they are left or right handed and the DV is their musical ability as measured by their score on an A level music exam. Sampling and justification Opportunity sampling will be used to recruit participants by studying the students in the sixth form who take A Level music. This sampling method is good because it is a quick and convenient way to obtain participants and is less time consuming for the researcher. ***Procedure*** Participants will read and sign a consent form so they give informed consent and are aware of their right to withdraw and that their data will remain confidential. The researcher will give each participant a number and record whether they are left or right handed. They will then be given an A level music exam to complete. Their music teacher will mark the exams and their scores recorded. The mean score on the exam for the left- and right-handed students can then be calculated and compared to find out if there is a difference in musical ability of left handed and right-handed students. ***Debrief*** Dear Participant Thank you for taking part in their study. We were investigating whether there is a difference in musical ability between left handed and right handed people. We have recorded what hand each of you is dominant in, and have also recorded your score on the music exam to see if there is a difference in the musical ability of left and right handed individuals. Please be assured that any data collected will be kept confidential and if you may withdraw your data if you would like to. Do you have any questions? Thank you for your participation.

research methods Flashcards

(225 cards)