Research methods Flashcards
(184 cards)
1
Q
An aim is
A
A general statement of the purpose
2
Q
Dependent variable
A
Measured
3
Q
Independent variable
A
Manipulated/changing
4
Q
Hypotheses
A
A prediction
5
Q
Directional hypotheses
A
Uses previous research, clear difference
6
Q
Non directional hypothesis
A
No previous research
7
Q
Example of non directional hypothesis
A
There will be a difference in (dv) between (group A) and (group B)
8
Q
Example of directional hypothesis
A
(Group A) will have a higher/lower (dv) in comparison to (group B)
9
Q
Operationalisation
A
Ensuring variables are in a form where they can be easily tested
10
Q
Extraneous variables
A
Unwanted variables. Any other variables that isnt the IV that could effect the DV.
11
Q
Common extraneous variables - (participant and situational)
A
Participant - age, IQ, personality
Situational - time, weather
12
Q
Demand characteristics
A
Change in behaviour to fit the experiment
13
Q
Investigator effect
A
Change in investigators behaviour (unconscious or consciously) towards participants making them give a desired answer/result
14
Q
How do you overcome demand characteristics/extraneous variables and investigator effect
A
Randomisation and standardisation
15
Q
Randomisation
A
Equal chance, eliminates error, controls bias
16
Q
Methods of randomisation
A
Dice roll, random name/number generator, names out of a hat, coin flip
17
Q
Standardisation
A
Every participant receives the same instructions = same experience
18
Q
Repeated measures
A
One group, take part in all conditions
19
Q
Advantages of repeated measures
A
No individual difference, no personal errors
20
Q
Disadvantage of repeated measures
A
Participants may figure out the experiment and display demand characteristics = unreliable results
21
Q
Match pairs design
A
Pairs are matched on a variable
22
Q
Advantage of matched pairs
A
More variation
23
Q
Disadvantages of matched pairs
A
More time, effort and money
24
Q
Independent group design
A
One group for each condition
25
Advantages of matched pairs
More variation, limits order effect/demand characteristics
26
Advantages of independent group design
Less likely to work out the aims, order effects/demand characteristics aren't a problem
27
Disadvantage of independent group design
More people = more money, individual differences
28
How to control order effects
Counterbalancing
29
Counterbalancing
Half participants participate in condition A then B, half participate in B then A to attempt to control order effects
30
Order effects
The outcome may differ due to the order of conditions
31
Laboratory experiment
Carried out in a controlled setting, high internal validity, good control over all variables
32
Advantages of laboratory experiments
It's well controlled over extraneous variables as a safe and secure environment
33
Disadvantages of laboratory experiments
Demand characteristics = give less accurate results and lack generalisation, as people can tell
34
Field experiment
Natural environment, people don't know its an experiment, high external validity, low internal validity, covert
35
Advantages of a field experiment
Behaviour is more natural - more mundane realism, less likely to show demand characteristics = accurate, reliable, genuine
36
Disadvantage of a field experiment
Can't control all IV
37
Covert
People don't know they are being observed
38
Overt
You know your being observed
39
Natural experiment
IV is natural occurring, would be unethical/impractical to change it
40
Advantages of natural experiment
Provides opportunity for experiments that wouldn't have normally taken place and study real-life issues and problems
41
Disadvantages of natural experiment
Unethical to change the IV so research is limited. Research is targeted at a specific group.
42
Quasi experiment
You can't manipulate the IV, it simply exists (sex, age, personality)
43
Advantages of a quasi experiment
Carried out in well controlled conditions, share the same strengths as lab experiments
44
Disadvantage of a quasi experiment
Targets specific people, unable to control the IV.
45
Internal validity
We can be sure change in DV is due to IV
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External validity
Results are genuine and can be applied to others
47
Random sampling
Members of the population have equal chance of being selected
48
Disadvantage of random sampling
Difficult and time-consuming, selected participants may be unwilling to participate
49
4 steps of random sampling
1. Get target population
2. Number participants
3. Random number generator
4. All have equal chance
50
Advantage of random sampling
No bias = valid, reliable results
51
Systematic sampling
Every nth member is selected, can use a random generator to select the person to start with
52
Advantage of systematic sampling
No bias, representative, easy, simple, accurate
53
Disadvantage of systematic sampling
Work out the experiment due to grouping
54
Stratified sampling
Sub-groups according to frequency in population. People are then selected randomly from the sub-groups
55
Advantages of stratified sampling
No bias, representative, reflects different groups, results can be generalised
56
Disadvantages of stratified sampling
Doesn't reflect all people differences; so full representation of population isn't possible
57
Opportunity sampling
Researchers ask random people who are available
58
Advantages of opportunity sampling
Convenient - saves time, money and effort
59
Disadvantages of opportunity sampling
May be bias in who the researcher picks, unrepresentative of specific people/areas (not generalised)
60
Volunteer sampling
Participants select themselves and volunteer
61
Advantages of volunteer sampling
Easy, no effort, less time consuming
62
Disadvantages of volunteer sampling
Study may attract a specific group/type of people so bias/not generalised
63
How could you promote volunteer sampling
Adverts, posters
64
Informed consent
Information given, concerning the nature and purpose of the experiment and their role
65
How do people get consent for experiments
A consent form
66
Deception
Deliberately withholding/misleading information. Not told true aims.
67
Overcome deception
Debrief after (experiment could cause distress)
68
Protection from harm
Should not experience physical or psychological harm (injury, lowered self-esteem or embarrassment)
69
Overcome protection from harm
Right to withdraw, offer therapy/reassurance/counselling
70
Confidentiality
Data is not shared
71
Privacy
Person has control over the flow of information about themselves
72
Achieve privacy and confidentiality
Remain anonymous, password protected/burnt/destroyed after test
73
Naturalistic observation
Setting where behaviour would naturally occur
74
Observations
Not manipulate any variable just watching behaviour
75
Controlled observation
Lab/controlled setting, variables can be managed
76
Covert observations
Public setting without participant consent
77
Overt observation
Recorded with participant knowledge
78
Participant observation
Researcher becomes a participant
79
Non - participant observation
Researcher remains separate from experiment
80
Advantage of naturalistic observations
High external validity and behaviour can be generalised
81
Disadvantages of naturalistic observations
Hard to replicate as lack of control, may be extraneous variables
82
Advantage of controlled observations
Less extraneous variables and less easy to replicate
83
Advantage of covert
No demand characteristics as natural and increase validity
84
Advantage of overt
Ethically acceptable
85
Advantage of participant observations
Increase validity and reliability as you get an insight into real lives
86
Advantage of non - participant observations
Maintains objective from a distance, less danger of going native
87
Disadvantage of controlled observations
Findings cannot be generalised, low external validity
88
Disadvantage of covert observations
Ethical issues - people don't know they are being observed
89
Disadvantage of overt observations
Demand characteristics = unreliable data
90
Disadvantage of participant observations
Researchers loses the objective - line between researcher and participant is blurred
91
Disadvantage of non - participant observations
May miss valuable information as at a far distance
92
Unstructured observations
Continuously recording everything, good for small scale
93
Structured observations
Use a behavioural checklist (behavioural categories)
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Behavioural categories
Target behaviour that is easily observed and measurable
95
Event sampling
Record every time a specific behaviour/event is done
96
Time sampling
Records at a fixed time (e.g every 15 seconds)
97
Inter - observer reliability
2 observers carry out observations and agree to avoid bias and objective data
98
4 steps to carry out inter - reliability
1. Familiarise with categories
2. Observe behaviour
3. Compare data
4. Analyse data
99
What percentage is high inter - observer reliability
80%
100
Advantage of structured observations
Systematic easy to analyse and easy to record
101
Advantage of unstructured observations
Qualitative data - rich in detail
102
Advantage of behavioural categories
Structured and objective data
103
Advantage of event sampling
Target behaviour that could occur infrequently/could be missed
104
Advantage of time sampling
Reduces number of observations, simpler
105
Disadvantage of structured observations
Lack detail
106
Disadvantage of unstructured observations
Difficult to analyse and record
107
Disadvantage of behavioural categories
Categories should not overlap and should not be dustbin categories
108
Disadvantage of event sampling
May overlook important details if behaviour is too complex
109
Disadvantage of time sampling
Unrepresentative of whole observation
110
Dustbin categories in behavioural categories
Categories that are too vague so lots fall under
111
Questionare
List of written questions
112
Open questions
Any answers
113
Closed questions
Fixed choice
114
Interview
Face to face or on the phone
115
Structured interview
Pre-determined set of questions in a set order
116
Unstructured interview
Conversation like/discuss
117
Semi-structured interview
Set questions but follow up questions as well
118
Qualitative
Language/words
119
Quantitative
Numbers
120
Primary data
First hand by researcher
121
Secondary data
Collected by someone else
122
Advantage of qualitative data
Details, greater external validity, wide views
123
Advantage of quantitative data
Simple, draw conclusions, less bias, objective
124
Advantage of primary data
Authentic, reliable
125
Advantage of secondary data
Inexpensive, easy to get = save time and effort
126
Advantage of structured interviews
Easy to replicate
127
Advantage of unstructured interviews
Gain a better insight
128
Advantage of questionnaires
Cost effective (large amounts of data) quickly, easy to analyse
129
Disadvantage of primary data
Time consuming, effort
130
Disadvantage of secondary data
Out of date, Variation in quality
131
Disadvantage of qualitative data
Difficult to analyse, subjective interpretation = bias
132
Disadvantage of quantitative data
Fail to represent real life, narrow scope
133
Disadvantage of structured interview
Lack of details, can't go off topic
134
Disadvantage of unstructured interview
Sift through data - difficult to analyse and time consuming
135
Disadvantage of questionnaires
Design characteristics, response bias (all people who answer may be similar to each other)
136
Correlation
An association between two variables, method used to analyse data
137
Pilot study
Small scale trial run
138
In positive correlation, variables go
Both go up/down
139
In negative correlation, variables go
1 goes up other goes down
140
What does correlation doesn't cause causation mean
There could be a third variable which causes one of the variables to rise/fall
141
Advantages of correlation (3)
1. Useful for looking at trends
2. Easy to replicate (confirm findings)
3. Quick economical to find
142
Disadvantage of correlation (2)
1. Can't find a conclusion as cannot demonstrate cause and effect between variables
2. May be another variable (intervening variable)
143
Mean
Add all, divide by number of values
144
Median
Middle
145
Mode
Common
146
Range
Difference between smallest and largest
147
Standard deviation
How much data deviates from the mean
148
Measure of dispersion
Range, standard deviation
149
Measure of central tendency
Mean, median, mode
150
Advantages of mode
Easy to calculate, good for all data (nominal data) not just numbers
151
Advantages of mean
Includes all values, representative
152
Advantages of median
Not effected by extreme values, easy to calculate
153
Advantages of range
Easy to calculate
154
Advantages of standard deviation
More representative, include all values
155
Disadvantage of mode
Not representative of all data
156
Disadvantage of mean
Easily distorted by extreme values
157
Disadvantage of median
Not all scores are included
158
Disadvantage of range
Use extreme values, unrepresentative of whole data
159
Disadvantage of standard deviation
Can be distorted by extreme values
160
Dispersion
How spreed out the data is
161
A table represents
Mean and standard deviation
162
Bar charts represent
Mean, discrete/categorical data
163
Scatter-grams represent
Correlation/relationships. Can't come to a cause and effect (variables aren't linked)
164
Histograms represnt
Continuous data, bars touch
165
Line graphs represent
Continuous data
166
Normal distribution on a graph looks like
Same/similar mean mode and median in middle, bell shape, symmetrical
167
Positive skewed distribution on a graph
Peak towards left (most people on left) , mode ---> median ---> mean, hard test
168
Negative skewed distribution on a graph
Peak towards the right (most people on right), mean --> median, ---> mode, easy test
169
Statistical testing
Determines if hypothesis should be accepted or rejected
170
Sign test defornition
A statistical test to analyse the difference in scores between related items
171
What is the sign test
Calculated value must be < (less than or equal to) the critical value for it to be seen as significant
172
Where do you get the critical value from
Critical value table
173
How to get the critical value from table
1. Determine hypothesis (directional - 1 tailed, non - 2 tailed)
2. Significance level (always 0.05/5% unless told otherwise)
3. Number of participants (N value)
174
How to calculate the calculated value
SMALLEST number of +'s or -'s
175
What to do if there are = in the calculated value
Remove them from the number of participants
176
Peer review
The assessment of scientific work by other specialists to make sure work is high quality
177
3 aims of peer review
1. Quality and accuracy
2. Suggest amendments and improvements
3. Allocate research funding
178
Positives of peer review
Validity and accuracy of research
179
Negatives of peer review
Anonymity - may allow rivals to criticizes research who find research a threat/competition as 'peer' is anonymous
Publication bias - only publishing things that will create hype (may be controversial)
180
Research done on parents was
Both parents form an equal bond with the child which promotes flexible working arrangements (mothers don't need to take traditional roles)
181
How does both parents forming bonds benefit the economy
Both parents can earn income and contribute effectively to society and the economy
182
Why does the treatment for mental illnesses benefit the economy
Treatments mean less people are off work
183
How much does absence from work cost the economy a year
£15 billion
184
What fraction of absences from work is to do with mental illness
1/3
