research methods

Question 1

what are extraneous variables? (research methods)

Answer 1

• any variable (not IV) that may affect the DV if it is not controlled
• do not vary systematically with the IV
• e.g. temperature

Question 2

what are confounding variables? (research methods)

Answer 2

• a kind of EV that vary systematically with the IV
• researchers can’t tell if change in DV is due to the IV or other CVs

Question 3

what is a lab experiment? (research methods)

Answer 3

• an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV & records the effect on the DV
• strict control of extraneous variables is maintained

Question 4

outline 2 strengths to lab experiments (research methods)

Answer 4

• have high control over CVs & EVs, which means that the researcher can ensure that any effect on the DV is most likely due to manipulating the IV
• this creates high internal validity & means demonstrating cause & effect is more certain
• replication is more possible than in other types of experiment due to high control
• ensures that new extraneous variables aren’t introduced when repeating an experiment
• replication is important to see if results from studies are valid or if they are a one time occurrence

Question 5

outline 2 weaknesses of lab experiments (research methods)

Answer 5

• may lack generalisability as lab environments can be artificial & not true to everyday life
• in an unfamiliar context, Ps may act in unusual ways so their behaviour can’t be generalised beyond the research setting (low external validity)
• Ps are also usually aware that they are being tested, which may lead to demand characteristics
• tasks Ps are asked to carry out may not represent everyday experience
• this causes low mundane realism

Question 6

why is replication of experiments important? (research methods)

Answer 6

• to test if findings from studies are valid or if they are a one time occurrence

Question 7

what is a field experiment? (research methods)

Answer 7

• an experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV & records the effect on the DV

Question 8

what are the strengths & weaknesses to field experiments? (research methods)

Answer 8

• have higher mundane realism than lab experiments as the environment is more natural
• may produce behaviour that is more valid & authentic, especially as Ps may be unaware they are being studied (high external validity)
• increased realism due to loss of control of CVs & EVs
• means cause & effect between IV & DV may be more difficult to establish
• precise replication is often not possible
• important ethical issues
• if Ps are unaware they are being studied they can’t consent to being studied
• this research may be classified as an invasion of their privacy

Question 9

what is a natural experiment? (research methods)

Answer 9

• an experiment where the change in IV is not brought about by the researcher
• researcher measures the effect on a DV they have decided on
• researcher has no influence over the experiment
• carried out in natural conditions

Question 10

outline 2 strengths of natural experiments (research methods)

Answer 10

• provide opportunities for research that may not have otherwise been undertaken for ethical reasons
• often have high external validity as they involve the study of real world issues & problems as they happen

Question 11

outline 2 weaknesses of natural experiments (research methods)

Answer 11

• naturally occurring events may only happen very rarely, reducing the opportunities for research
• this may also limit the ability to generalise findings to similar situations
• Ps may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions (only applies when there is an independent groups design)
• this means that they researcher may be less sure if the IV impacted the DV
• such research may be conducted in a lab & therefore may lack realism & demand characteristics may be an issue

Question 12

what is a quasi-experiment? (research methods)

Answer 12

• a study that is almost an experiment but lacks key parts
• the IV has not been established by anyone (the researcher or any other person)
• variables (e.g.) age just exist
• is not an experiment

Question 13

outline the strengths & weaknesses of quasi-experiments (research methods)

Answer 13

• are often carried out under controlled conditions & therefore can be easily replicated
• has control over EVs
• can’t randomly allocate Ps to conditions & therefore there may be CVs
• the IV is not deliberately changed by the researcher so we can’t be sure the IV has caused any observed change

Question 14

Outline the 3 types of correlation (research methods)

Answer 14

• positive = as one co-variable increases, so does the other
• negative = as one co-variable increases, the other decreases
• no correlation = when there is no relationship between co-variables

Question 15

outline 2 strengths of using correlations (research methods)

Answer 15

• provide a precise & quantifiable measure of how variables are related
• this may suggest ideas for possible future research if variables are strongly related
• are often used as a starting point to assess possible patterns between variables before researchers commit to an experimental study
• this can help to preserve time & resources
• quick & economical to carry out
• there is no need for a controlled environment & no manipulation of variables is required
• data collected by others (secondary data) can be used
• this means that correlations are less time consuming than experiments

Question 16

outline 2 weaknesses of using correlations (research methods)

Answer 16

• other untested (intervening/third) variables may be causing the relationship between the co variables
• because of this, correlations can be misused/misinterpreted
• relationships between variables are sometimes presented as casual when they aren’t (especially be the media)
• this may harm people’s views of certain situations
• as a result if the lack of experimental manipulation & control within a correlation, studies can only tell us how variables are related, not why
• can’t demonstrate cause & effect between variables so we don’t know which co-variable is causing the other to change
• establishing the direction of an effect is an issue

Question 17

what is a target population? (research methods)

Answer 17

• refers to a large group of people that a particular researcher is interested in studying

Question 18

what is random sampling? (research methods)

Answer 18

• a mathematical technique where all members of a target population have an equal chance of being selected
• first, you need to obtain a list of all members of a target population
• secondly, all the names are assigned a number & then the names are selected using a type of lottery method

Question 19

evaluate random sampling (research methods)

Answer 19

• is potentially unbiased
• confounding/extraneous variables should be equally divided between the two groups, enhancing internal validity
• difficult & time consuming
• complete list of names from a target population may be hard to obtain
• sample may still be unrepresentative
• selected Ps may refuse to take part (population ends up like a volunteer sample)

Question 20

what is systematic sampling? (research methods)

Answer 20

• every nth member of a target population is selected
• a sampling frame (list of people in the target population that has been organised into a category) is produced
• may begin from a randomly determined start to reduce bias
• the researcher then works through the sampling frame until the sample is completed

Question 21

evaluate systematic sampling (research methods)

Answer 21

• sampling method is objective
• once the system for selection has been established, the researcher has no influence over who is chosen (even more so if start is randomly selected)
• method is time consuming
• Ps may refuse to take part, resulting in a volunteer sample

Question 22

what is stratified sampling? (research methods)

Answer 22

• the characteristics/make up of Ps within a sample are the same as in the target population
• researcher first identified different strata that make up a population
• then the proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out
• the Ps that make up each strata are then selected using random sampling

Question 23

evaluate stratified sampling (research methods)

Answer 23

• produces a representative sample because it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of a population
• this means that generalisation of findings is possible
• avoids researcher bias
• stratification is not perfect
• identified strata can’t reflect all the ways that people are different
• this means that complete representation of the target population is not possible
• is time consuming

Question 24

what is opportunity sampling? (research methods)

Answer 24

• anyone can be included in the sample
• representative samples of a target population are usually difficult to obtain, so researchers often select anyone who is available & willing to take part
• researcher takes the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of their study

Question 25

evaluate opportunity sampling research methods)

Answer 25

- method is convenient - method is less costly (in terms of time & money) than other sampling methods because a list of members of a target population is not required, so there is no need to divide the population - have bias - sample is unrepresentative of the target population (as it is drawn from a specific area), so findings can’t be generalised to the target population - researcher bias - the researcher has complete control over the selection of Ps

Question 26

what is volunteer sampling? (research methods)

Answer 26

- Ps select themselves to be a part of a sample (referred to as self-selection - researchers may place adverts in a newspaper, or willing Ps may volunteer when asked by a researcher

Question 27

evaluate volunteer sampling (research methods)

Answer 27

- collecting a volunteer sample is was & requires minimal input from researchers - it is less time consuming than other sampling methods - researcher ends up with Ps who are more engaged with the study - volunteer bias is usually an issue - asking for volunteers may attract people who want to please the researcher - this can lead to demand characteristics & may effect how far findings can be generalised

Question 28

what are self report techniques? State the two main types (research methods)

Answer 28

- any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, behaviour and experiences on a given topic - questionnaires - interviews

Question 29

what are questionnaires? (research methods)

Answer 29

- involve a list of pre-written questions that Ps respond to - usually used to assess people’s thoughts/feelings - may be used in an experiment to assess the dependent variable - questions can be organised into open & closed questions

Question 30

what are open & closed questions? (research methods - questionnaires)

Answer 30

- open questions do not have a fixed range of answers & people can answer how they wish - they tend to produce qualitative data that has a wide range of different responses that may be difficult to analyse - closed questions offer a fixed number of responses (e.g. yes/no questions or rating on a scale) - quantitative data is easy to analyse but may lack depth & detail - can turn qualitative data into quantitative data

Question 31

positively evaluate the use of questionnaires as a self-report technique (5) (research methods)

Answer 31

- cost effective - can gather large amounts of data quickly as it can be distributed to large numbers of people - can be completed without the researcher present, which reduced the effort involved - data produced is usually way to analyse (especially is it is mostly fixed answer questions) - comparisons between groups of people can be made using graphs/charts - results are standardised so easy to compare

Question 32

negatively evaluate the use of questionnaires as a self-report technique (research methods)

Answer 32

- responses given may not always be truthful - Ps may want to present themselves in a positive way, which may influence they answers (social desirability bias - type of demand characteristic) - often produce a response bias - respondents may respond to all questions in a similar way - this may be because people rush to answer & fail to read/answer the questions properly - experiments usually aren’t present which causes a lack of control - response rates may be low as they are optimal - not taken seriously, (aquiesce bias may be present)

Question 33

outline the 3 types of interview (research methods)

Answer 33

structured interviews: - made up of determined questions that are asked in a fixed order - conducted face-to-face/over the phone in real time (so the interviewer asks a question & waits for a response) unstructured interviews: - similar to a conversation as there are no set questions - there is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed - interaction tends to be free flowing - interviewee is encouraged to elaborate on their answers by the interviewer semi-structured interviews: - are the most likely to be encountered in everyday life (e.g. job interviews) - there is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance - interviewers are free to ask follow up question based on previous answers - ask both opened & closed questions but open are prioritised

Question 34

evaluate structured interviews as a self-report technique (research methods)

Answer 34

- (P) are straight forward to replicate fire to their standardised format - the format also reduces differences between interviewers - (N) given the nature of the structured interview, it is not possible for interviewers to deviate from the topic or explain their questions - this limits the richness of the data collected & will limit unexpected info

Question 35

evaluate unstructured interviews as a self-report technique (research methods)

Answer 35

- (P) has more flexibility as the interviewer can follow up points as they arise & gain more unexpected info - (N) this may lead to an increased risk of interviewer bias - analysis of data from unstructured interviews is difficult as researchers may have to sift through irrelevant info & drawing conclusions may be hard - (N) (as with questionnaires) there is a risk that interviewees may lie (social desirability bias) - however a skilled interviewer should be able to establish a sufficient rapport with Ps so even when sensitive info is discussed their response is more likely to be truthful

Question 36

outline the 3 types of closed questions used when designing questionnaires (research methods)

Answer 36

likert scales: - the respondent indicated their agreement (or otherwise) with a statement using a scale of (usually) 5 points - the scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree rating scales: - works in a similar way to likert scales but get respondents to identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic - 1 - 5 scale of just numbers fixed choice option: - includes a list of possible options & respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them

Question 37

briefly outline the process of designing an interview (7) (research methods)

Answer 37

- most involve an interview schedule (the list of questions the interviewer intends to cover) - these should be standardised to reduce the contaminating effect of interviewer bias - typically the interviewers will take notes during the interview, or it may be recorded & analysed later - usually involve an interviewer & a single P (group interviews may be appropriate in clinical settings) - 1-to-1 interviews should be conducted in a quiet room away from other people (increases the likelihood of the P opening up) - begin with some neutral questions to make interviewees feel relaxed & establish a rapport - ensure interviewees know their answers are said in confidence as this will help when discussing personal or sensitive topics