Research Methods

Question 1

What is hindsight bias?

Answer 1

Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Question 2

How does overconfidence affect our beliefs and judgments?

Answer 2

Overconfidence makes us more confident than correct and leads us to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Question 3

What are the key elements of the scientific method?

Answer 3

Curiosity, skepticism, humility

Question 4

What does a theory do in scientific research?

Answer 4

It explains using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Question 5

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 5

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Question 6

What is an operational definition?

Answer 6

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Question 7

Which methods are considered descriptive in research?

Answer 7

Case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys/interviews

Question 8

What does correlational research involve?

Answer 8

Research that associates different factors or variables

Question 9

What are the strengths and weaknesses of case studies?

Answer 9

Strengths: allow for examination of rare or unusual behavior, provide qualitative data, suggest directions for future studies. Weaknesses: atypical cases can be misleading, cannot generalize, cannot determine cause and effect

Question 10

What does naturalistic observation involve?

Answer 10

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating or controlling the situation

Question 11

What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation?

Answer 11

Strengths: subjects behave normally, data collection does not disturb subjects. Weaknesses: atypical cases can be misleading, cannot isolate independent variables, cannot determine cause and effect, observations could be subjective

Question 12

What is a case study in research?

Answer 12

An intensive examination of unusual people or organizations

Question 13

What does a survey involve in research?

Answer 13

Self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually through questioning a random sample

Question 14

What are the strengths and weaknesses of surveys/interviews?

Answer 14

Strengths: provide a quick overview of beliefs, include many cases. Weaknesses: response bias, wording can skew outcomes, random samples are difficult, cannot determine cause and effect

Question 15

What are experimental methods in research?

Answer 15

Methods where researchers manipulate variables to discover their effects

Question 16

What is correlation in research?

Answer 16

A measure of how two factors vary together, and how well either factor predicts the other

Question 17

What is a positive correlation?

Answer 17

As one variable increases, the other increases

Question 18

What is a negative correlation?

Answer 18

As one variable increases, the other decreases

Question 19

What is the correlation coefficient?

Answer 19

A numerical value indicating the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to 1

Question 20

What is a scatterplot?

Answer 20

A graphed cluster of dots representing values of two variables

Question 21

What is regression to the mean?

Answer 21

The tendency of extreme scores on a variable to be followed by less extreme scores

Question 22

What is random assignment in research?

Answer 22

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance to minimize preexisting differences

Question 23

What is the placebo effect?

Answer 23

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; effects caused by assuming an inert substance is an active agent

Question 24

What is a confounding variable in an experiment?

Answer 24

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

Question 25

What is experimental validity?

Answer 25

The extent to which an experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Question 26

What are creative steps in research?

Answer 26

Designing studies, measuring target behaviors, and interpreting results

Question 27

What do specific findings help with?

Answer 27

They provide principles that explain everyday behaviors (e.g., detecting a faint red light to explain plane visibility at night)

Question 28

What do theoretical principles test?

Answer 28

They are tested by intentionally creating controlled, artificial environments in the lab (e.g., light visibility experiments)

Question 29

Why is animal research important?

Answer 29

Animals are fascinating to study and help us understand human behavior; animals have simpler systems

Question 30

What are ethical considerations in research?

Answer 30

Informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, protection from harm, right to withdraw

Question 31

What is descriptive statistics?

Answer 31

Numerical data used to describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation

Question 32

What are the measures of central tendency?

Answer 32

Mean, median, mode

Question 33

What is a skewed distribution?

Answer 33

When results are not symmetrical and favor one side over the other

Question 34

What does a right skew indicate?

Answer 34

Mean > median

Question 35

What does a left skew indicate?

Answer 35

Mean < median

Question 36

What is standard deviation?

Answer 36

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean; calculated by finding the mean, subtracting it from each data point, squaring the differences, finding the mean of squared differences, and taking the square root

Question 37

What is a normal curve?

Answer 37

The symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes

Question 38

What are the percentages associated with the normal curve?

Answer 38

1 standard deviation: 68%, 2 standard deviations: 95%, 3 standard deviations: 99%

Question 39

What is inferential statistics?

Answer 39

Numerical data that allows us to generalize from a sample to the population and infer probabilities

Question 40

What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

Answer 40

Descriptive statistics: describe data using central tendency. Inferential statistics: try to infer causation and predict trends based on sample data

Question 41

What does statistical significance measure?

Answer 41

The likelihood that an obtained result occurred by chance