research methods Flashcards
(173 cards)
1
Q
what are the 3 types of study
A
- experiments
- observation
- self reporting
2
Q
what is the experimental method
A
the experimental method looks at how variables affect outcomes
3
Q
what are the ways an experiment can be designed
A
- independent groups
- repeated measures
- matched pairs
4
Q
how does an independent groups experiment work
A
participants are divided into two groups. one group does the experiment with variable 1, the other group does the experiment with variable 2. results are compared.
5
Q
how does repeated measures experiment work
A
participants are not divided into groups. Instead, all participants do the experiment with variable 1, then afterwards the same participants do the experiment with variable 2. results are compared.
6
Q
how does a matched pairs experiment work
A
Participants are selected. Then, the researchers recruit another group of participants one-by-one to match the characteristics of each member of the original group. This provides two groups that are relevantly similar and controls for differences between groups that might skew results. The experiment is then conducted as a normal independent groups design.
7
Q
what are the different types of experiments
A
- field
- laboratory
- quasi
- natural
8
Q
what is a laboratory experiment
A
An experiment conducted in an artificial, controlled environment
E.g. Bandura’s Bobo the doll experiment or Asch’s conformity experiments
9
Q
what is a field experiment
A
An experiment carried out in a natural, real-world environment
E.g. Bickman’s study of the effects of uniforms on obedience
10
Q
advantages of lab experiment
A
- controlled environment
- replication
11
Q
disadvantages of lab experiment
A
- experimenters bias
- low ecological validity
12
Q
what is a quasi experiment
A
An experiment that compares between two variables that cannot be changed
E.g. studying differences between men (variable) and women (variable)
13
Q
what is a natural experiment
A
An experiment where the variable changes naturally and the researcher seizes the opportunity to study the effects
E.g. studying the effect a change in drug laws (variable) has on addiction
14
Q
what is the observational method
A
The observational method looks at and examines behaviour. For example, Zimbardo’s prison study observed how participants behaved when given certain social roles.
15
Q
what is used to carry out an observational design
A
- behavioral categories
- to prioritise which behaviours are recorded and ensure the different observers are consistent in what they are looking for
16
Q
evaluate behavioral categories
A
- Inter-observer reliability: In order for observations to produce reliable findings, it is important that observers all code behaviour in the same way. For example, researchers would have to make it very clear to the observers what the difference between a ‘3’ on the anxiety scale above would be compared to a ‘7’.
-This inter-observer reliability avoids subjective interpretations of the different observers skewing the findings.
17
Q
why is event and time sampling used
A
Because behaviour is constant and varied, it may not be possible to record every single behaviour during the observation period. So, in addition to categorising behaviour, study designers will also decide when to record a behaviour:
18
Q
what is event sampling
A
Counting how many times the participant behaves in a certain way.
19
Q
what is time sampling
A
Recording participant behaviour at regular time intervals. For example, making notes of the participant’s behaviour after every 1 minute has passed.
20
Q
what are the different types of observation
A
- naturalistic
- controlled
- covert
- overt
- participant
- non participant
21
Q
what is a naturalistic observation
A
Observations made in a real-life setting
E.g. setting up cameras in an office or school to observe how people interact in those environments
22
Q
what is a controlled observation
A
Observations made in an artificial setting set up for the purposes of observation
E.g. Ainsworth’s strange situation or Zimbardo’s prison study
23
Q
what is a covert observation
A
Participants are not aware they are being observed as part of a study
E.g. setting up hidden cameras in an office
24
Q
what is an overt observation
A
Participants are aware they are being observed as part of a study
E.g. Zimbardo’s prison study
25
what is participant observation
Where the researcher/observer is actively involved in the situation being observed
E.g. in Zimbardo’s prison study, Zimbardo played the role of prison superintendent himself
26
what is non participant observation
When the researcher/observer is not involved in the situation being observed
E.g. in Bandura’s Bobo the doll experiment and Ainsworth’s strange situation, the observers did not interact with the children being observed
27
what is the self report method
Self-report methods get participants to provide information about themselves.
28
what are the different types of self report
- questionnaires
- interviews
29
what is a questionnaire
A questionnaire is a standardised list of questions that all participants in a study answer.
Questions in a questionnaire can be either open or closed.
30
what is a closed question
Have a fixed set of responses, such as yes/no or multiple choice questions.
31
what is an open question
Do not have a fixed set of responses, instead enabling participants to provide responses in their own words.
32
what are the strengths of questionnaires
Quantifiable: Closed questions provide quantifiable data in a consistent format, which enables to statistically analyse information in an objective way.
Replicability: Because questionnaires are standardised (i.e. pre-set, all participants answer the same questions), studies involving them can be easily replicated. This means the results can be confirmed by other researchers, strengthening certainty in the findings.
33
what are the weaknesses of questionnaires
Biased samples: Questionnaires handed out to people at random will select for participants who actually have the time and are willing to complete the questionnaire. As such, the responses may be biased towards those of people who e.g. have a lot of spare time.
Dishonest answers: Participants may lie in their responses – particularly if the true answer is something they are embarrassed or ashamed of (e.g. on controversial topics or taboo topics like sex)
Misunderstanding/differences in interpretation: Different participants may interpret the same question differently. For example, the “are you religious?” example above could be interpreted by one person to mean they go to church every Sunday and pray daily, whereas another person may interpret religious to mean a vague belief in the supernatural.
Less detail: Interviews may be better suited for detailed information – especially on sensitive topics – than questionnaires. For example, participants are unlikely to write detailed descriptions of private experiences in a questionnaire handed to them on the street.
34
what is an interview
In an interview, participants are asked questions in person. For example, Bowlby interviewed 44 children when studying the effects of maternal deprivation.
can be structured or unstructured or a cross between the 2 ( semi structured )
35
what is a structured interview
Questions are standardised and pre-set. The interviewer asks all participants the same questions in the same order.
36
what is an unstructured interview
The interviewer discusses a topic with the participant in a less structured and more spontaneous way, pursuing avenues of discussion as they come up.
37
strengths of interviews
More detail: Interviews – particularly unstructured interviews conducted by a skilled interviewer – enable researchers to delve deeper into topics of interest, for example by asking follow-up questions. Further, the personal touch of an interviewer may make participants more open to discussing personal or sensitive issues.
Replicability: Structured interviews are easily replicated because participants are all asked the same pre-set list of questions. This replicability means the results can be confirmed by other researchers, strengthening certainty in the findings.
38
weaknesses of interviews
Lack of quantifiable data: Although unstructured interviews enable researchers to delve deeper into interesting topics, this lack of structure may produce difficulties in comparing data between participants. For example, one interview may go down one avenue of discussion and another interview down a different avenue. This qualitative data may make objective or statistical analysis difficult.
Interviewer effects: The interviewer’s appearance or character may bias the participant’s answers. For example, a female participant may be less comfortable answering questions on sex asked by a male interviewer and and thus give different answers than if she were asked by a female interviewer.
39
what is an aim
The aim of a study is a description of what the researchers are investigating and why. For example, “to investigate the effect of SSRIs on symptoms of depression” or “to understand the effect uniforms have on obedience to authority”.
40
what is a hypothesis
testable prediction of what the researchers expect to happen.
41
what are the 2 types of hypothesis
- experimental hypothesis
- null hypothesis
42
what is an experimental hypothesis
A prediction that changing the independent variable will cause a change in the dependent variable.
E.g. “That SSRIs will reduce symptoms of depression” or “subjects are more likely to comply when orders are issued by someone wearing a uniform”.
43
what is a null hypothesis
A prediction that changing the independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable.
E.g. “That SSRIs have no effect on symptoms on depression” or “subject conformity will be the same when orders are issued by someone wearing a uniform as when orders are issued by someone bot wearing a uniform”
44
why do researchers use sampling
It’s often not possible or practical to conduct research on everyone your study is supposed to apply to. So, researchers use sampling to select participants for their study.
Population: The entire group that the study is supposed to apply to
E.g. all humans, all women, all men, all children, etc.
Sample: A part of the population that is representative of the entire group
E.g. 10,000 humans, 200 women from the USA, children at a certain school
45
what are the different types of sampling
- random
- systematic
- stratified
- opportunity
- volunteer
46
what is random sampling
method involves selecting participants from a target population at random – such as by drawing names from a hat or using a computer program to select them. This method means each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected and thus is not subject to any bias.
47
what is systematic sampling
The systematic sampling method involves selecting participants from a target population by selecting them at pre-set intervals. For example, selecting every 50th person from a list, or every 7th, or whatever the interval is.
48
what is stratified sampling
The stratified sampling method involves dividing the population into relevant groups for study, working out what percentage of the population is in each group, and then randomly sampling the population according to these percentages.
49
what is opportunity sampling
Approaching participants who are available and asking them to take part.
E.g. Approaching people in the street and asking them to complete a questionnaire.
50
what is volunteer sampling
Participants offer to take part (also called self-selected sampling).
E.g. Placing an advert online inviting people to complete a questionnaire.
51
what is an independent variable
Something that is changed by researchers in an experiment.
E.g. In Bickman’s study of the effects of uniforms on obedience, the independent variable was the uniform of the person giving orders.
52
what is a dependent variable
Something that is measured by researchers in an experiment.
E.g. In Bickman’s study of the effects of uniforms on obedience, the dependent variable was how many people followed the orders.
53
what is an extraneous variable
In addition to the variables actually being investigated (independent and dependent), there may be additional (unwanted) variables in the experiment. These additional variables are called extraneous variables.
54
why must researchers control extraneous variables
Researchers must control for extraneous variables to prevent them from skewing the results and leading to false conclusions.
55
what are confounding variables
When extraneous variables are not properly controlled for they are known as confounding variables.
56
what is operalisation of variables
Operationalisation of variables is where researchers clearly and measurably define the variables in their study.
57
why is operalisation of variables important
If variables are not properly operationalised, the experiment cannot be properly replicated, experimenters’ subjective interpretations may skew results, and the findings may not be valid.
58
what is a pilot study
A pilot study is basically a practice run of the proposed research project. Researchers will use a small number of participants and run through the procedure with them.
59
what is the purpose of a pilot study
The purpose of this is to identify any problems or areas for improvement in the study design before conducting the research in full. A pilot study may also give an early indication of whether the results will be statistically significant.
For example, if a task is too easy for participants, or it’s too obvious what the real purpose of an experiment is, or questions in a questionnaire are ambiguous, then the results may not be valid. Conducting a pilot study first may save time and money as it enables researchers to identify and address such issues before conducting the full study on thousands of participants.
60
what are the features of a psychological report (9)
- title
- abstract
- introduction
- method
- results
- discussion
- conclusion
- references
- appendices
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title ( psychological report )
A short and clear description of the research.
62
abstract ( psychological report )
A summary of the research. This typically includes the aim and hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusion.
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introduction ( psychological report )
Funnel technique: Broad overview of the context (e.g. current theories, previous studies, etc.) before focusing in on this particular study, why it was conducted, its aims and hypothesis.
64
method ( psychological report )
A detailed description of the procedure used in the study, so that the study can be evaluated and replicated. Typically includes the following sub-sections (if appropriate):
Study design: This will explain what method was used (e.g. experiment or observation), how the study was designed (e.g. independent groups or repeated measures), and identification and operationalisation of variables.
Participants: A description of the target population to be studied, the sampling method, how many participants were included.
Equipment used: A description of any special equipment used in the study and how it was used.
Standardised procedure: A detailed step-by-step description of how the study was conducted. This allows for the study to be replicated by other researchers.
Controls: An explanation of how extraneous variables were controlled for so as to generate accurate results.
65
results ( psychological report )
A presentation of the key findings from the data collected. This is typically written summaries of the raw data (descriptive statistics), which may also be presented in tables, charts, graphs, etc. The raw data itself is typically included in appendices.
66
discussion ( psychological report )
An explanation of what the results mean and how they relate to the experimental hypothesis (supporting or contradicting it), any issues with how results were generated, how the results fit with other research, and suggestions for future research.
67
conclusion ( psychological report )
A short summary of the key findings from the study.
68
references ( psychological report )
A list of all the sources – i.e. books and published articles – used in the study. These are listed according to standard formats, e.g. the Harvard referencing style:
Book: Milgram, S., 2010. Obedience to Authority. 1st ed. Pinter & Martin.
Journal article: Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S., 1961. Transmission of Aggression through Imitation of Aggressive Models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), pp.575-582.
69
appendices ( psychological report )
This is where you put any supporting materials that are too detailed or long to include in the main report. For example, the raw data collected from a study, or the complete list of questions in a questionnaire.
70
what is peer review
Peer review is a way of assessing the scientific credibility of a research paper before it is published in a scientific journal. The idea with peer review is to prevent false ideas and bad research from being accepted as fact.
71
how does peer review work
The researchers submit their paper to the journal they want it to be published in, and the editor of that journal sends the paper to expert reviewers (i.e. psychologists who are experts in that area – the researchers’ ‘peers’) who evaluate the paper’s scientific validity. The reviewers may accept the paper as it is, accept it with a few changes, reject it and suggest revisions and resubmission at a later date, or reject it completely.
72
what are the different methods of peer review
- open review
- single-blind
- double - blind
73
what is an open review
The researchers and the reviewers are known to each other.
74
what is a single blind review
The researchers do not know the names of the reviewers. This prevents the researchers from being able to influence the reviewer. This is the most common form of peer review.
75
what is a double blind review
The researchers do not know the names of the reviewers, and the reviewers do not know the names of the researchers. This additionally prevents the reviewer’s bias towards the researcher from influencing their decision whether to accept their paper or not.
76
criticisms of peer review
- Bias: Reviewers may favour friends or shared views; funding bodies may influence outcomes.
- Fraud: Some fake or poor-quality studies still get published.
- Blocks new ideas: Older academics may reject innovative research that challenges the status quo.
- Plagiarism risk: Reviewers might steal ideas under anonymity.
- Slow: The process can take months or even years before publication.
77
how is a study evaluated
- ethics
- reliability
- validity
- control of extraneous variables
78
what is the code of research human ethics
- valid consent
- no deception
- confidentiality
- debriefing
79
what does ethical issues mean
ethical issues are questions of what is morally right and wrong. An ethically-conducted study will protect the health and safety of the participants involved and uphold their dignity, privacy, and rights.
80
what is meant by consent ( ethics )
Participants are told the project’s aims, the data being collected, and any risks associated with participation.
Participants have the right to withdraw or modify their consent at any time.
Researchers can use incentives (e.g. money) to encourage participation, but these incentives can’t be so big that they would compromise a participant’s freedom of choice.
Researchers must consider the participant’s ability to consent (e.g. age, mental ability, etc.)
81
what does no deception mean ( ethics )
- Avoid misleading, deception is allowed only if it’s necessary and justified (e.g., Asch’s study).
- Researchers must avoid harm and manage risk.
- Prior consent: Participants agree to be deceived, but this might affect their behaviour.
- Retrospective consent: Participants are told after the study and asked for consent — but it’s too late if they refuse.
- Presumptive consent: Ask non-participants if they would consent; assume actual participants would too.
82
what does confidentiality mean ( ethics )
Personal data obtained about participants should not be disclosed (unless the participant agreed to this in advance). Any data that is published will not be publicly identifiable as the participant’s.
83
what does debriefing mean (ethics)
Once data gathering is complete, researchers must explain all relevant details of the study to participants – especially if deception was involved. If a study might have harmed the individual (e.g. its purpose was to induce a negative mood), it is ethical for the debrief to address this harm (e.g. by inducing a happy mood) so that the participant does not leave the study in a worse state than when they entered.
84
what does it mean if a study is reliable
if the same results can be consistently replicated under the same circumstances. If results are inconsistent then the study is unreliable.
85
how do researchers test reliability
- test retest
- inter-observer reliability
-
86
what is a test re-test ( reliability )
when you give the same test to the same person on two different occasions. If the results are the same or similar both times, this suggests they are reliable.
87
what does inter-observer mean ( reliability )
Inter-observer reliability is a way to test the reliability of observational studies. Inter-observer reliability can be assessed mathematically by looking for correlation between observers’ scores. Inter-observer reliability can be improved by setting clearly defined behavioural categories.
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what does validity mean
Study results are valid if they accurately measure what they are supposed to.
89
how do researchers test for validity
- concurrent validity
- face validity
- ecological validity
- temporal validity
90
what is concurrent validity
A test’s results are correlated with (i.e. similar to) the results of a similar test.
91
what is face validity
The study just looks like it measures what it’s supposed to at face value
92
what is ecological validity
The extent to which a study’s findings apply outside of the environment it was conducted in (i.e. in real life or other contexts).
93
what is temporal validity
The study’s results stay true over time
94
what are the different extraneous variables
- demand characteristics
- investigator effects
- participant variables
- situational variables
- task order
95
what are demand characteristics and how can it be controlled
Demand characteristics are extraneous variables where the demands of a study make participants behave in ways they wouldn’t behave outside of the study. This reduces the study’s ecological validity.
researchers can control for demand characteristics using single-blind methods
96
what are investigator effects and how can it be controlled
Investigator effects are another extraneous variable where the characteristics of the researcher affect the participant’s behaviour. this reduces the study’s ecological validity. and can be controlled by using double-blind trials .The researcher’s biases may also come across in their body language or tone of voice, affecting the participant’s responses.
97
what are participant variables and how can it be controlled
Participant variables are differences between participants. These can be controlled for by random allocation
98
what are situational variables and how can it be controlled
Situational variables are the environment the experiment is conducted in. These can be controlled for by standardisation.
99
what is task order and how can it be controlled
In a repeated measures experiment, researchers may use counterbalancing to control for the order in which tasks are completed.
100
implications of psychological research on the economy
Attachment: Bowlby said mothers should stay home with children under 3, but newer research supports substitutes (e.g. fathers, nurseries), allowing mothers to return to work and stay economically active.
Psychopathology: Mental illness affects ability to work. Effective treatment helps people return to work and reduces strain on the NHS and justice system.
Depression: Therapies like CBT and SSRIs enable recovery, saving long-term costs and boosting tax contributions.
OCD: Drug and behavioural treatments help sufferers return to work and reduce healthcare reliance.
Memory: Cognitive interview improves eyewitness accuracy, saving police time and public money.
101
how does science work
Science works by making empirical observations of the world, formulating hypotheses/theories that explain these observations, and repeatedly testing these hypotheses/theories via experimentation.
102
what are the features of science
- objectivity
- replicability
- falsifiablity
103
what is objectivity ( science )
Observations are made from a neutral perspective without bias, rather than the scientist’s subjective viewpoint.
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what is replicability ( science )
Scientific procedures and experiments can be repeated to double-check the findings are valid.
105
what is falsifiability ( science )
When a theory or hypothesis is tested/replicated, there must be some possible observation that could prove it false – even if that never actually happens.
106
what is a paradigm shift
minority voices are able to successfully challenge the existing paradigm and replace it with a new one. When this happens it is a paradigm shift. An example of a paradigm shift in science is that from Newtonian gravity to Einstein’s theory of general relativity.
107
what are the different types of data
- qualitative ( non-numerical )
- quantitative ( numerical )
- primary (original data collected for the study)
- secondary (data from another study previously conducted)
108
evaluation of qualitative vs quantitative
Strengths of quantitative data / weaknesses of qualitative data:
Can be compared mathematically and scientifically: Quantitative data enables researchers to mathematically and objectively analyse data. For example, mood ratings of 7 and 6 can be compared objectively, whereas qualitative assessments such as ‘sad’ and ‘unhappy’ are hard to compare scientifically.
Weaknesses of quantitative data / strengths of qualitative data:
Less detailed: In reducing data to numbers and narrow definitions, quantitative data may miss important details and context.
109
what is content analysis
Although the detail of qualitative data may be valuable, this level of detail can also make it hard to objectively or mathematically analyse. Content analysis is a way of analysing qualitative data.
110
what is the process of content analysis
-A sample of qualitative data is collected
E.g. A bunch of unstructured interviews on the topic of childhood
-Relevant coding units are identified and operationalised
E.g. Discussion of traumatic events, happy memories, births, and deaths
-The data is analysed according to these coding units to produce quantitative metrics
E.g. Researchers listen to the unstructured interviews and count how often traumatic events are mentioned
-Statistical analysis is carried out on this data
111
what is a meta-analysis
A meta-analysis is a study of studies. It involves taking several smaller studies within a certain research area and using statistics to identify similarities and trends within those studies to create a larger study.
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what is a benefit of a meta-analysis
A good meta-analysis is often more reliable than a regular study because it is based on a larger data set, and any issues with one single study will be balanced out by the other studies.
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advantages of the mean
- good for interval data
- makes use of all values
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disadvantages of the mean
influenced by outliers
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advantages of the median
- not affected by extreme values
- good for ordinal data
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disadvantages of median
- doesn't use all data
- not as sensitive as the mean
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advantages of the mode
- useful for nominal data
118
disadvantage of the mode
- not useful when there are several modes
119
advantages of the range
easy to calculate
120
disadvantages of the range
- affected by extreme values
- does not use all data
121
advantages of standard deviation
- precise measure where all data values are taken into account
122
disadvantages of standard deviation
- difficult to calculate
- affected by extreme values
123
advantages of field experiment
- naturalistic therefore high ecological validity
- controlled IV
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disadvantages of field experiment
- unethical as there is likely to have been no informed consent
- loss of control over extraneous variables
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advantages of quasi experiment
- controlled
- highly replicable
126
disadvantages of quasi experiment
- cannot randomly allocate participants so there may be confounding variables, making it harder to conclude cause and effect
127
advantages of natural experiment
- provides opportunities for research that would have otherwise been impossible due to practical or ethical reasons
- high external validity
128
disadvantages of natural experiment
- natural occurring events , hard to replicate and generalize
- very difficult to randomize so confounding and extraneous variables become a problem
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advantages of opportunity sampling
- time saving and cheap
130
disadvantages of opportunity sampling
- not representative of the whole population hence lacks generalisability
- researcher bias
131
advantages of random sampling
- no researcher bias
132
disadvantages of random sampling
- time consuming
- volunteer bias as participants can refuse to take part so can end up with an unrepresentative sample
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advantages of systematic sampling
- avoids researcher bias
-usually fairly representative
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disadvantages of systematic sampling
- not truly unbiased unless you use a random number generator and then start the systematic sample
135
advantages of stratified sampling
- no researcher bias
- representative due to the proportional strata
136
disadvantages of stratified sampling
- time consuming
- complete representation of target population is not possible as the identified strata cannot reflect all the differences between the people of the wider population
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advantages of volunteer sampling
- easy and not time consuming
- as they are willing to take part they are more likely to cooperate in the study
138
disadvantages of volunteer sampling
- volunteer bias as the study may attract a particular profile of a person affecting generalizability
- motivations like money could be driving participation so participants may not take the study seriously
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advantages of independent groups design
- no order effects
- eliminate demand characteristics
- participants are less likely to guess the aims of the study
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disadvantages of independent groups design
- no control over participant variables where different abilities of the participants can cause changes to the DV
- need more participants than other designs to gather the same amount of data
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solution for limitations of independent groups
- random allocation as it ensures each participant has the same chance of being in one condition of the IV as the other
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advantages of repeated measures
- eliminates participant variables
- fewer participants needed so not as time consuming finding and using them
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disadvantages of repeated measures
- order effects
- boredom may mean that in the second condition participant does not to as well on the task
144
solution for limitation of repeated measures
counterbalancing: this is when half of the participants do conditions in one order and the other half do it in the opposite order
145
advantages of matched pairs
- no order effects
- demand characteristics are less of a problem
146
disadvantages of matched pairs
- time consuming and expensive to match
- large pool of potential participants needed
- difficult to know which variables are appropriate for the participants to be matched
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advantages of naturalistic observation
- high ecological validity
- high external validity as its done in a natural experiment
148
disadvantages of naturalistic observation
- low ecological validity if participants become aware that they are being watched
- uncontrolled confounding and extraneous variables
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advantages of controlled observation
- researcher is able to focus on a particular aspect of behavior
- easy replication
- there is more control over extraneous and confounding variables
150
disadvantages of controlled observation
- more likely unnatural behavior as it is in an unnatural environment
- low mundane realism so low ecological validity
- demand characteristics presented
151
advantages of overt observation
- ethically acceptable as informed consent is given
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disadvantages of overt observations
- more likely to be recording unnatural behaviour as participants know that they are being watched
- demand characteristics likely which reduced validity
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advantages of covert observation
- natural behaviour so high internal validity
- less likely to guess the aims of the study
154
disadvantage of covert observation
- unethical as no informed consent is given
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advantages of participant observation
- more insightful so increases validity of the findings
156
disadvantages of participant observation
- behaviour may change if participants were to find out that they are being watched
- researcher may lose objectivity as they may start to identify too strongly with the participants
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advantages of non-participant observation
- researcher can be more objective
158
disadvantages of non-participant observation
- observer bias for example of stereotypes the observer isn't aware of
- researcher may lose valuable insight
159
what is considered high inter observer reliability
any score above 80%
160
strengths of correlations
- can be used as starting points to assess patterns between co-variables before committing
- quick and economical
- secondary data can be used making it even less time consuming
161
limitation of correlation
- difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship, only an association is found
- chance that there is a third variable that the researcher is unaware of that is responsible for the relationship between the co-variables
- misused or misinterpreted
162
what to consider when constructing a questionnaire
- clarity - phrased in a clear way
- avoid overuse of jargon, emotive language or leading questions to avoid bias
- sequencing questions so that easier first then harder as it builds confidence
- filler questions to prevent the participant from guessing the real aim of the study ( eliminating demand characteristics )
-pilot study can be carried out to ensure that the questionaire is suitable
163
what to consider when constructing an interview
- recording information
- ethical issues ( informed consent and reminded that it will remain confidential )
- location : quiet room away from other people to get the participant comfortable
- neutral questions to start with to make the participant feel relaxed and help establish a rapport
164
when can a sign test be used
- looked for a difference not an association
- used a related experimental design - repeated measure design
- collected nominal data
165
how to conduct a sign test
step 1 - state the hypothesiese, null and alernative hypothesis
step 2 - record data and work out the sign ( positive or negative )
step 3 - find the calculated value for the sign test which is the number of times the less frequent sign occurs
step 4 - find the critical value
if S is greater than critical value accept null hypothesis
if S is less than critical value reject null hypothesis
step 5 - state conclusion whereby you refer back to hypothesis mentioning the IV and the DV support your conclusion with the exact values
166
why is statistical testing used
- a way of determining whether hypotheses should be rejected or accepted
- tells us whether differences or relationships between variables that have been found during experiments are statistically significant or if they have only occurred due to chance
167
solution for ethical issue of informed consent
- prior general consent
- presumptive consent
- retrospective
168
solution for ethical issue of deception
- debriefing ( written or verbal )
- right to withdraw
- true nature of the study must be said
169
solution for ethical issue of protection of harm
- if participants have been subject to any stress or psychological harm, the researcher should provide counselling if required
- cost-benefit analysis done before a study by an ethics committee
170
solution of ethical issue of privacy and confidentiality
- anonymity maintained ( referred to by initials or numbers )
- participant should be reminded that during both the briefing and debriefing of the investigation that their data will be protected
171
appropriate measure for ordinal data ( ranking , lacks precision and is subjective )
- median
- range
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appropriate measure for nominal data ( discrete/categories )
- mode
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appropriate measure for interval data ( numerical scale which includes equal units of precisely defined size
- mean
-standard deviation
