Research Methods Flashcards
(168 cards)
1
Q
What is an aim?
A
An aim is a statement of a study’s purpose. Aims are stated before the research begins to make it clear what the study intends to investigate.
2
Q
What is a one-tailed (directional) hypotheses? give an example of one and when would you use it?
A
A one tailed hypothesis states the direction of the difference or relationship. Use more/less, higher/lower etc. is used when there’s pre-existing research on our aim.
3
Q
What is a two-tailed (non-directional) hypothesis? Give an example, and when would you use it?
A
It’s a hypothesis that states there’s a difference but doesn’t specify the direction of it. There’s a difference in the height of a child and their intelligence as they grow older. It’s used when there isn’t pre-existing research on the aim.
4
Q
What is a null hypothesis?
A
A hypothesis that states that there’s no difference in between variables. The data you collect either backs this assumption or not, if the data doesn’t support your null hypothesis you reject it and go with your alternative hypothesis.
5
Q
What is a bar chart?
A
A bar chart is used to represent ‘discrete data’ where the data is in categories which are placed on the x-axis and the mean/frequency is on the y-axis.
6
Q
What,s the difference between a histogram and bar chart?
A
In histograms the bars touch each other whilst bar charts are spaced out
7
Q
What is a histogram?
A
A histogram is used to represent continuous data, columns touch because one forms a single score on a related scale. Scores are placed on the x-axis and frequency is on the y-axis.
8
Q
What is correlational analysis?
A
It is when two or more variables are measured in order to identify if there’s a relationship between them.
9
Q
Evaluate the use of correlational analysis
A
Advantages
- Can be used when it would be unethical to conduct experiments
- If correlational is significant, further investigation is justified
- If correlational isn’t significant, you can rule out a casual relationship
Disadvantages
- It cannot demonstrate a cause and effect relationship between variables
- There may be other unknown variables that can explain why the co-variables studied are linked
- Extraneous variables may lead to false conclusions
10
Q
What is a correlation coefficient?
A
A number between -1 and +1. Tells us how strong the correlation is. The nearer to +1, the stronger the relationship. The + or - sign tells us if the correlation is positive or negative.
11
Q
What is the relationship in a positive correlation graph?
A
Both variables increase together
12
Q
What is the relationship in a negative correlation graph?
A
As one variable increases the other decreases
13
Q
What are scatter graphs used for?
A
They are used for measuring the relationship between two variables. Data from one variable is on the x-axis, vice-versa for othe other data on the y-axis. Pattern of plotted points reveals different types of correlation e.g. positive, negative, none
14
Q
What is normal distribution?
A
Normal distribution is a symmetrical spread of frequencies data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all found at the highest peak.
15
Q
What is a skewed distribution?
A
A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end.
16
Q
What is positive distribution?
A
The long tail is on the positive side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left. The mean is greater than the mode and median.
17
Q
What is negative distribution?
A
The long tail is on the negative side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right. The mode and median are greater than the mean.
18
Q
What is a line graph?
A
A line graph is used as an alternative to the histogram. Lines show where mid-points of each column on a histogram would reach. Particularly useful for comparing two or more conditions simultaneously.
19
Q
What is an independent variable?
A
The variable that is manipulated/changed
20
Q
What is the dependent variable?
A
The variable that is measured and what will be affected by the changes
21
Q
What is operationalisation?
A
It is how we are going to measure our variables. We must define how we intend to measure the IV and DV.
22
Q
What is random allocation.
A
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.
23
Q
What is counterbalancing?
A
It is where half the participants participate in condition A before condition B and vice versa. This means that the first and second condition isn’t the same for every participant.
24
Q
What is randomisation?
A
It is where materials are presented in a random order to avoid order effects. Participants may be asked to learn a list of words in a different order.
25
What is standardisation?
It is using the exactl same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
26
What are extraneous variables?
They are anything that impacts the dependent variable that is not the independent variable e.g. sleep, weather, food eaten etc.
27
How can extraneous variables be controlled?
They can be controlled through randomisation, standardisation of instructions and using control groups.
28
What are confounding variables?
Confounding variables are external factors that can influence both the independent and dependent variables.
29
What is internal validity?
It measures what it claimed to measure or examine
30
What is external validity?
It is the extent to which the results of the study can be generalised to others
31
What is ecological validity?
It is how generalisable to real life setting the experiment is - generalising findings from one setting to other settings
32
What is predictive validity?
It is if the diagnosis leads to successful treatment then the diagnosis is seen as valid
33
What is concurrent validity?
It results from a new test which can be compared to a previously well-established test
34
What is population validity?
Whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people
35
What is temporal validity?
It assesses to what degree research findings remain over time
36
What is face validity?
It measures if the test looks as though it measures what is intends to measure
37
What is content validity?
It involves asking experts in the field to check the content of the study
38
What is reliability?
It is the overall consistency of a measure
39
What is internal validity?
It is the extent to which a test is consistent within itself
40
What is external reliability?
It refers to the ability of the test to produce the same results each time it’s carried out
41
What are ethical guidelines?
A set of principles and standards that guide the conduct of psychologists and researchers in the field
42
What is informed consent?
It is knowing aims and giving your permission to take part in the study (Menges, 1973)
43
What is deception?
It is deliberately misleading or withholding information
44
What is the right to withdraw?
It is being able to leave when desired
45
What is confidentiality?
It is details that should be kept private
46
What age needs parental consent to take part in an experiment?
16 and under
47
What should a consent form include?
- Names, signature, date
- aim and purpose of study
- Right to withdraw
- Phone numbers of support/therapy
48
What is protection from harm?
No more harm than daily life should be experienced (Glass and Singer,1972)
49
What is a debrief?
It is returning the participant to the original state that they were in before the research
50
Why is a debrief used as a method of dealing with all other issues?
It is very useful after traumatic events, research or crisis situations. Its purpose is to promote healing, facilitate learning, and improve future responses.
51
What is an independent groups design?
There are two separate groups of participants. One group takes part in condition A, the other takes part in condition B
52
Evaluate the use of the independent groups design
Advantages
- No order effects - only take part in one condition., dot participants don’t get bored or practised
- Fewer demand characteristics - participants may only know their condition
Disadvantages
- Individual differences as the people taking part in each condition are different - one group might be simply better
- More participants are needed
53
What is a repeated measures experiment design?
There’s only one group of participants that takes part in both conditions
54
Evaluate the use of the repeated measures experiment
Advantages
- No individual differences as the same people do both conditions
- Less participants are needed
Disadvantages
- Order effects - either boredom or practise can be helped by counter-balancing
- Demand characteristics - participants know what the experimenters are expecting and may perform to meet that expectation. Also the measure has to be changed e.g. different sets of words to memorise
55
What is the matched pairs experiment design?
There are two separate groups, but this time they are matched into pairs for certain qualities like age. One of each pair takes part in condition A, other person in pair takes part in condition B.
56
Evaluate the use of the matched pairs experiment design
Advantages
- No order effects
- Controls for individual differences. Can be more sure the IV caused difference in DV rather than a big difference between two groups
Disadvantages
- Can be difficult to make perfect matches and is costly on money and time
57
Describe the nature and use of field experiments
They take place outside of the lab in a natural environment but the basic scientific procedures are still followed as far as possible. IV is manipulated. DV is measured.
58
Give an example of a field experiment you have studied
Bickman - tested obedience in NYC streets in different uniforms
59
Evaluate the use of field experiments
Advantages
- Less artificial - represents reality - can be completed in natural environments- avoids participants effects (if they are not aware of the study) therefore it should produce behaviour which is more natural and valid (less demand characteristics).
Disadvantages
- Extraneous variables are less easy to control therefore less able to show cause and effect. This produces ethical issues as the participants are unlikely to know if they are being studied.
60
Describe the nature and use of lab experiments
They are a controlled artificial environment where the IV is manipulated.
61
Evaluate the use of lab experiments
Advantages
- Controlled which minimises problems with extraneous variables and are easily replicated to check same results. This leads to high reliability and so high internal validity.
Disadvantages
- Artificial environment (low mundane realism) —> the participants are unlikely may behave differently to normal or be affected by the environment (demand characteristics). This therefore may lack generalisability and so reduces external validity.
62
What is an experimental group?
A group of participants in a study who are exposed to a specific manipulation of the independent variable, or a treatment, that researchers are investigating.
63
What is a control group?
This group of participants serves as a baseline for comparison against an experimental group.
64
What is an example of a lab experiment?
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment
65
What are demand characteristics?
Demand characteristics occur when the participants try to make sense of the research and act accordingly to support the aim of the research.
66
How can demand characteristics be controlled?
By using deception, employing double-blind procedure, between groups design (each participant only receives one independent variable treatment, making it more difficult for them to deduce study’s purpose), introducing filler tasks
67
What is meant by the term ‘double blind’ and why is it used?
It is the situation when neither the participants or the researcher are aware of the aims of the investigation - usually used in drug trials.
68
What is meant by the term ‘single blind’ and why is it used?
Participants aren’t aware of the condition they are in. It attempts to control for the confounding effects of demand characteristics.
69
What is the nature and use of a natural experiment?
It is a natural environment and the IV is not manipulated. It is used when taking advantage of a naturally occurring event.
70
Evaluate the use of the natural experiment
Advantages
- High ecological validity provides opportunities for research which otherwise may not be available. This enables psychologists to study ‘real’ problems. It is an objective research method - little interference from researcher and so fewer ethical issues
Disadvantages
- A naturally occurring event may happen very rarely which limits the opportunity to investigate, this also limits generalisability. Many extraneous variables which are a threat to ‘cause and effect’ conclusion. Participants aren’t randomly allocated to conditions which may mean there’s some bias in the sample.
71
Describe the nature and use of the Quasi experiment
The IV is naturally existing characteristic between people and has not been changed by anyone or anything. Biological sex, IQ, eye colour, ethnicity
72
Evaluate the use of a Quasi experiment
Advantages
- Often carried out under laboratory conditions so therefore high in controls which enables psychologists to study ‘real’ problems
Disadvantages
- Like natural experiments, participants can’t be randomly allocated to conditions therefore there may be confounding variables, meaning we cannot establish cause and effect
73
What are behavioural categories?
They are devising a set of component behaviours
74
What is event sampling?
Counting the number of times a certain behaviour (or event) occurs in a target individual or individuals
75
What is time sampling?
It is recording behaviours in a given time frame. For example, noting what an individual is doing every 30 seconds.
76
What is a controlled observation?
When the researcher has some measure of control over the environment
77
Name an example of a famous controlled observation
Bobo doll
78
Evaluate the use of controlled observation
Strengths
- Control over extraneous variables
- Inter-observer reliability
- Easy to replicate
Weaknesses
- Cannot be applied to real life settings
- May be subjective towards what the researcher wants to see
79
What is naturalistic observation?
It is studying behaviour in a natural setting where everything has been left as it is normally
80
Evaluate the use of naturalistic observation
Strengths
- High external/ecological validity
- Natural environment - generalised to everyday life
- Few demand characteristics
Weaknesses
- Replciation is difficult
- lack of control
- uncontrolled extraneous variables
81
What is a covert observation?
The participants are not aware that they are being observed
82
Evaluate the use of covert observations
Strengths
- No demand characteristics
Weaknesses
- Ethical issues as they don't know they are being observed
83
What is an overt observation?
The participants are aware that they are being observed
84
Evaluate the use of an overt observation
Strengths
- Less ethical issues as they are not being deceived
Weaknesses
- There maybe demand characteristics as they know they are being observed
85
What is a participant observation?
It is where the observer act as part of the group being watched
86
Evaluate the use of participant observation
Strengths
- Experience situation and insight which increases validity
Weaknesses
- Lose objectivity, difficulty in recording observations. ethical issues
87
What is a non-participant observation?
It is where the observer does not become part of the group being observed
88
Evaluate the use of non-participant observation
Strengths
- More ethical
- More objective
Weaknesses
- Less insight
- Not experiencing the same things, lower in validity
89
What is a structured observation?
The researcher determines precisely what behaviours are to be observed and uses a standardised checklist to record the frequency with which they are observed within a specific time frame
90
Evaluate the use of a structured observation
Strengths
- Easier to gather relevant data because you know what you are looking for
Weaknesses
- Interesting behaviours could go unrecorded because they weren't pre-defined as important
91
What is an unstructured observation?
The observer recalls all relevant behaviour but has no system
92
Evaluate the use of an unstructured observation
Strengths
- All interesting behaviours will be recorded even if they weren't pre-defined as important
Weaknesses
- Harder to gather relevant data because you don't know what you are looking for
93
What is inter-rater reliability?
It is what determines if the test should give consistent results regardless of who administers it. This is assessed by correlating the scores that each researcher produces and comparing them.
94
How can inter-rater (aka inter-observer) reliability be improved?
Inter-rater reliability is improved by training data collectors. Providing them with a guide for recording their observations. Monitoring the quality of the data collection over time this offers a chance to discuss difficult issues or problems.
95
Describe the nature and use of interviews
It's spoken questions which can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured
96
What is a structured interview?
When questions are decided in advance
97
Evaluate the use of a structured interview
Strengths
- Can be easily repeated - standardised questions
- Requires less skill than unstructured interviews
- Easier to analyse than unstructured interviews
Weaknesses
- Interviewer bias may still occur
- Social desirability may still occur
- Data collected will be restricted by a pre-determined set of questions
98
What is an unstructured interview?
The interview start with general aims and questions and then lets the interviewee's answers guide subsequent questions
99
Evaluate the use of unstructured interviews
Strengths
- Detailed and in-depth information is obtained
- Access information that may not be revealed from pre-determined questions
- Deep insights into feeling and thoughts
- You can tailor questions to specific responses
- Good report - high in validity
Weaknesses
- More affected by interviewer bias than structured interviews
- Requires high training levels
- Low reliability
- Hard to analyse answers
- Body language
100
What are investigator effects?
Investigator effects are when a researcher unintentionally influences the outcome of their study, often through their own behaviours and expectations.
101
What is researcher bias?
It refers to the unintentional influence a researcher's own expectations or beliefs have on the outcome of a study.
102
How can you avoid investigator effects?
researchers can employ methods like double-blind studies, standardised procedures (treating everyone equally), random assignment (random assignments refers to randomly assigning participants to different conditions or groups in the study).
103
Evaluate the use of standard/general interviews
Advantages
- Rich, in-depth data
Disadvantages
- Time-consuming to analyse
- Subjective
104
How can you avoid researcher bias?
Using double-blind procedures and randomisation
105
What is content analysis?
A method of quantifying qualitative content via coding/categorisation. Data is analysed as typologies, quotations and summaries. Hypotheses are grounded in the data. Coding units are identified to analyse data and they check how often that code appears.
106
Describe the process involved in content analysis
A diary is created by someone analysing a group and they write down all that is happening. Someone else analyses them and finds categories or codes within that data.
107
On what type of data would content analysis be used?
Qualitative data
108
How can content analysis be checked if it's reliable?
- Researchers should clarify operationalised codes
- Researchers could create new categories if necessary
- Researchers should be trained carefully in using these identified codes
- They should analyse a small number of diary extracts using the same analytic system
- Any improvement in reliability could be determined by establishing inter-rater reliability between the two researchers, or test-retest reliability
- The researcher's results are compared for similarity to check improvements (within +0.8)
109
Evaluate the use of the process of content analysis
Strengths
- A clear summary of the patterns in the data may be established
- Once a coding system has been set up, replication is easy. This, in turn, improves reliability
Weaknesses
- Can be subjective
- Reducing the data to coding units removes detail
110
What is thematic analysis?
It involves making summaries of data and identifying key themes and categories. These themes should be recurrent. The researcher becomes familiar with the data. Researcher looks for different themes, reviews the themes, defines and names the themes and then writes a report. It can give the bases for hypotheses - grounded in the data.
111
Evaluate the use of thematic analysis
Strengths
- Qualitative analysis preserves the details in the data
- Creating the hypotheses during analysis allows for new insights to develop
- Some objectivity can be established by using triangulation (comparing two results of two studies and seeing if they are similar)
Weaknesses
- You can't decide which categories to use and whether something fits a category - it's subjective
- You can't decide what to leave out of the summary. It's subjective
112
Define mean
a measure of central tendency, calculated by adding all values and dividing by the total numbers of values.
113
Evaluate the use of finding the mean of a dataset
Strengths
- Very sensitive statistic because it takes account of the exact distance between all values of all the data
- Representative of all data
Weaknesses
- If one of the values is extremely high or low, then the overall mean can be very distorted and therefore misrepresent data
- Cannot be used with nominal data
114
Define mode
It is the most common value in a dataset and it's calculated by counting the most common value
115
Evaluate the use of median
Advantages
- Not affected by extreme scores
- Easy to calculate
- Not distorted by any anomalies
Weaknesses
- Less sensitive than the mean because the exact value aren't reflected in the median
116
Evaluate use of mode
Strengths
- Unaffected by extreme values
- Useful for discrete data and is the only method which can be used with nominal data
Weaknesses
- Sometimes there are so many modes that the data cannot be described using this statistic
117
Define median
The middle value in an ordered list
118
What is the range?
The arithmetic distance between the top and bottom values in a set of data and is calculated by the difference in highest data piece and the lowest data piece.
119
Evaluate the use of range
Advantages
- Easy to calculate
Weaknesses
- Effected by extreme values
- If fails to take into account the distribution of the numbers for examples it doesn't indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out evenly
120
How to calculate standard deviation?
s = Square root(E(X-X)^2)/Square root(N)
where E means "sum of"
The first X is each value in the data set
The second X is mean of all values in the data set
N is the number of all values in the data set
121
Evaluate the use of standard deviation
Advantages
- Precise measure of dispersion because it takes into account all values
Weaknesses
- May hide some characteristics of the data set
122
What is qualitative data?
Data expressed in words and is non-numerical, offers rich insight and details of peoples thoughts and feelings. However, it can be difficult to analyse and may be subject to researcher bias. It's time consuming to analyse.
123
What is quantitative data?
It is numerical data, easy to analyse, conclusions can be drawn easily. It’s more objective data and is less open to bias. However, it isn’t as meaningful compared to qualitative data as it doesn’t always represent real life.
124
What is primary data?
It is data obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of the research project. Usually gathered first hand e.g. questionnaires.
125
What is secondary data?
It is information that pre-dates the research project and has already been gathered by someone else.
126
Evaluate the use of primary data
Strengths
- it’s authentic data which is obtained directly from the participant therefore targeted to get the information that is required
Weaknesses
- Can require a lot of time and effort in conducting the experiment
127
Evaluate the use of secondary data
Strengths
- It may be inexpensive and easily accessible requiring minimal effort
Weaknesses
- Maybe variation in quality and accuracy of secondary data
- The content of data may not quite match the researchers needs
128
What is a pilot study and why is it used?
A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work and to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary.
129
What are the nature and use of questionnaires?
They are a set of questions used to assess one’s thoughts and experiences usually gathered from large numbers of people, carried out on selected samples.
130
For both open and closed questionnaires, describe the design
They both have clarity, bias and sequencing of difficulty for questions
131
Evaluate the use of questionnaires
Advantages
- cost effective
- no demand characteristics
- Researcher doesn’t need to be present
- straightforward to analyse
Disadvantages
- leading questions can lead to unreliable data
- social desirability bias - try to remain to be viewed positively
- misunderstanding questions - unreliable
132
What is social desirability?
It is the tendency for individuals to respond to questions or behave in a way that they believe will be viewed favourably by others or in a way that aligns with social norms.
133
how can social desirability affect validity
This bias leads to inaccuracies in data collection, making it difficult to accurately measure behaviours, attitudes, or opinions.
134
Describe the nature and use of case studies
They are in-depth studies which use a range of methods on one person or group. They increase reliability by process of triangulation.
135
What is triangulation?
It is using a range of methods to double check results concerned
136
Evaluate the use of case studies
Strengths
- Rich in data - researchers have the opportunity to study rare phenomena in a lot of detail
- Unique cases - can challenge existing ideas and theories and make suggestions for future research
Weaknesses
- Ethics - informed consent needed
- Casual relationships- cause and effect cannot be established
- Not generalisable
137
Name an example of a famous case study
Stanford Prison experiment
138
What is a sample?
It is when we carry out research we need people to take part in, these are called participants.
139
What is meant by a population?
It is the group of people from whom the sample is drawn from. We use a target population if we want to investigate specific individual differences.
140
What is random sampling?
It is when each person has an equal chance of being selected. Chosen randomly (number generator/names in a hat etc.)
141
Evaluate the use of random sampling
Advantages
- Unbiased: all members of the target population have an equal chance of selection
Weaknesses
- The researcher may end with a biased sample as the sample is too small
- Subgroups of target population might not be selected - doesn’t guarantee a representative sample
142
What is a volunteer sample?
It is when researcher advertises the study and people who are interested apply to be in the research
143
Evaluate the use of volunteer sampling
Advantages
- Quick, convenient and ethical if it leads to informed consent
- Large response rates
- Allows more in-depth analysis and accurate results
Weaknesses
- Sample is unbiased because the participants are likely to be more highly motivated (volunteer bias)
144
What is opportunity sampling?
It is asking people who are available at the time to take part in the research
145
Evaluate the use of opportunity sampling
Advantages
- An easy and fast method because you just use the first participants you can find
Disadvantages
- Biased because the sample is drawn from a small part of the target population
- Unlikely to be representative of a target population
146
What is stratified sampling?
It’s when the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (strata) within the target population or wider population.
147
Evaluate the use of stratified sampling
Strengths
- More representative than an opportunity sample because there should be equal representation of subgroups
Weaknesses
- It’s time consuming because all potential participants need to be assessed and categorised
- Some groups within a sample may not be represented if a small sample is used
148
What is systematic sampling?
It is selecting every nth name from a list (e.g. every 5 people)
149
Evaluate the use of systematic sampling
Advantages
- It avoids bias as once the researcher has decided what number they have no control who is being selected
Weaknesses
- It’s not completely objective because the researcher may decide on how people are listed before the selection
- There’s a small chance of a ‘freak’ sample which wouldn’t be representative
150
151
What is presumptive consent?
Ask similar groups of people for consent
152
What is prior general consent?
It is consent for different studies, including one that may involve deception
153
What is retrospective consent?
It is asking consent during debrief
154
What is a nominal level of measurement?
Data represented in the form of categories, e.g., how many students in 6th form drive to school, how many walk etc. Nominal data is discrete, one item can only appear in one category.
155
What is an ordinal level of measurement?
It is data which is ordered in some way e.g. asking everyone in class how much they like 6th form on a scale from 1-10. Ordinal data doesn’t have equal intervals between each unit. It wouldn’t make sense to say that someone who rated the 6th form as an 8 enjoys it twice as much as someone who rated it as a 4. It can be seen as unsafe which is why it’s turned into ranks before we can use statistical tests on it.
156
What are interval levels of measurement?
It is based on numerical scales that include units of equal precisely defined size. Units of measurements for height, time and temperature, for example.
157
How can you improve validity for questionnaires?
Using test-retest methods which should produce a correlation that exceeds +80.
158
How can you improve validity for interviews?
Not to ask leading or ambiguous questions, instead, use a structured interview.
159
How can you improve validity for experiments?
Precise replication of a particular method - pilot study
160
How can you improve validity for observations?
Categories are properly operationalised, measurable and self-evident. These categories shouldn’t overlap.
161
What is the Hawthorne effect?
If people are interested in something and in the attention they are getting, then they show a more positive response, and try harder at tasks (please you effect). The results are artificially high which could lead to invalid conclusions. The opposite effect occurs if the participants are uninterested.
162
Evaluate the use of time sampling
Strengths
- Very convinient for the researcher to carry out
- Suitable for observing social behaviours
Weaknesses
- May not be representative of social behaviours
163
Evaluate the use of event sampling
Strengths
- Researchers know exactly what behaviours they are looking for
Weaknesses
- Potentially interesting behaviours could be ignored
164
How can you increase inter-rater reliability?
- Use the sample behavioural categories - discuss and agree on an interpretation
- Both observers would make independent observations
- Compare the two tally charts at the end
165
What is the difference between experiments and correlations?
It’s not possible to establish cause and effect using correlational. You may find a strong link between things but that doesn’t necessarily mean one causes the other. Instead you have found an association.
166
What is inter-rater reliability?
Two or more interviewers/observers must get the same outcome on 80% or more of the behaviours
167
What is the split-half method?
You compare an individual’s performance on two halves of a test
168
What is a test-retest method?
It’s when the person repeats a test a month or so after do in the test the first time
