Research Methods Flashcards
DISCLAIMER - Does not have Module 8 (visuals in notion) (130 cards)
1
Q
What are the 8 steps in creating a research study?
A
- Research question and hypothesis
- Define variables and measurement
- Study design
- Sampling
- Data collection
- Analyse data
- Develop conclusions and report findings
- Think critically and refine hypotheses
2
Q
Define theory
A
- Set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behaviour
- Helps organise and unify different observations of the behaviour and its relationship with other variables
- Generates predictions about behaviour
3
Q
Define construct
A
- Hypothetical, abstract attributes theorised to underlie observable behaviour
- External stimuli → Construct → External behaviour
4
Q
What is an operational definition?
A
- When a construct is operationalised to make it measurable
-
Doesn’t refer to the construct itself → Instead is how we observe and define the construct through indirect measurement
- Specific measurement procedure
- Theorised to correlate with the construct
5
Q
What are limitations of using operational definitions?
A
- Not the same as the construct → Just things that are hoped to indicate it
-
Not a one-to-one relationship between the variable measured and the actual measurement
- More likely to leave out important concepts
- Can contain extra components not part of the construct measured
Can fix lacking info via doing multiple procedures to measure the same variable
6
Q
How do you use/make operational definitions?
A
- Consult (multiple) previous research that involve the same variable in order to determine how to operationalise
- Makes it easier to compare results to previous studies
- Also important to critically examine any measurement in order to determine if there are better ways to measure the construct for more accurate results
7
Q
What are the 5 methods of acquiring knowledge?
A
- Method of Tenacity 🔁
- Method of Intuition 🧐
- Method of Authority (& faith) 🤓
- Rational Method 🤷
- Empirical Method 👁️👁️
8
Q
Describe the method of tenacity
A
- Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed/ supported by superstition
9
Q
What are the limitations of the method of tenacity?
A
- Information acquired might not be accurate
-
No method to correct false claims
- Widely accepted beliefs difficult to reverse
10
Q
Describe the method of intuition
A
- Information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or ‘gut feeling’
11
Q
What is a limitation of the method of intuition?
A
- No mechanism to separate accurate from inaccurate knowledge
12
Q
Describe the method of authority
A
- Person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area (can include the web)
- Method of Faith → Unquestioning trust in the figure and therefore accepting information without doubt or challenge
13
Q
What are the limitations of the method of authority?
A
- Does not always provide accurate information
- Biased authorities (political)
- Answers obtained could represent subjective, personal opinion
- Often assumed that expertise in one area means expertise in another (not always true) - Expertise generalised
- Statements accepted without question
- Accuracy check missing
- Complete trust (method of faith)
- Not all experts are experts
14
Q
Describe the rational method
A
- Seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning
- Involves premise statements → Facts or assumptions presumed to be true
- Argument → Set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion
15
Q
What are the limitations of the rational method?
A
- Conclusion not necessarily true unless both of the premise statements are true
- People are not particularly good at logical reasoning
- May misjudge something as sound reasoning
16
Q
Describe the empirical method
A
- Uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge
17
Q
What are the limitations of the empirical method?
A
- We cannot necessarily believe everything we see, hear or feel
- Also possible to have an accurate observation be misinterpreted
- Time consuming and sometimes dangerous
18
Q
What is the scientific method?
A
- Approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers
- Combines several elements of different methods of acquiring knowledge
19
Q
What are the 5 steps of the scientific method?
A
-
Observe behaviour or other phenomena
- Induction → Using a relativively small set of specific observations to form a general statement for a larger set of possible observations
- Form a hypothesis
- Use hypothesis to generate testable prediction
- Deduction → Use general statement as basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples
- Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations (empirical)
- Use observations to support, refute or refine the original hypothesis
Induction and deduction are complementary
20
Q
What is the difference between induction and deduction?
A
- Induction
- Many specific observations to general question
- Sourced from outside world
- Deduction
- General question to specific observation in experiment
- Sourced from general statement
21
Q
Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research
A
- Quantitative → Measuring (usually numerical) values to obtain scores
- Qualitative → Based on making observations that are summarised and interpreted in a narrative report
Not as simple as numbers V no numbers…
22
Q
What is the difference between research subjects and participants?
A
- Subjects → Non-human
- Participants → Human
23
Q
What is a research question?
A
- Broad question, idea or problem that will be investigated
24
Q
What are the types of research questions?
A
- Association/ Relationship
- Difference
- Prediction
25
What should be done after the research question has been determined?
* **Literature Search and Review**
* Read about what **research** has been **performed** in the area **before**
* Attention to what has been done most **recently**
* **Refine** research question into **testable statement** → Hypothesis
26
What qualities does a hypothesis have?
* **Logically** follows from literature review (next logical step)
* Narrow and **specific** in contrast to research question
* **Testable** - Observable and measureable phenomenon
* **Refutable** or falsifiable
* **Predictive** of an effect (something will happen)
27
How do you find a research idea?
* Identify a **general topic** that is **interesting**
* Explore **previous research** to find a specific research idea or question
* What is known?
* What questions remain?
28
What are common sources of research topics?
* **Personal** interests and curiosities
* **Casual** observation
* Reports of **others' observation**
* **Practical** problems or questions
* **Behavioural theories**
29
What is the difference between applied and basic research?
* Applied
* Answer **practical** problem
* Basic
* Answer **theoretical** questions
* Gather knowledge for the **sake of new knowledge**
30
How do you start a literature review?
* Collect **background information**
* Keep an open mind
* Begin with **basic idea** → **Background leads to specific**
* Maintain **focus** on gaining **one research idea**
* Don't worry about the last steps → Focus on what needs to be done in the **present**
31
What is the difference between a primary and secondary source?
* Primary
* **Firsthand** report of observations
* Individual who **conducted the research**
* **Detailed** reading
* Better for **final answers**
* Secondary
* Description or summary of **another person's work**
* Someone who **did not participate in the research**
* Overview
* **Good starting point - Weak later**
32
What is an advantage of using secondary research?
* Provide **summaries**
* **Save time**
33
What are limitations of secondary sources
* Always **incomplete**
* Can be **biased** or **inaccurate**
34
What is a variable?
* Characteristic or condition that can **change** or take on **different values for different people**
35
Name 4 types of variables
* Independent
* What is being **changed**
* Has an **effect on dependent**
* Dependent
* **Affected** by independent
* Continuous
* Can make scale more sensitive
* Discrete
* Can't make scale sensitive - Only whole
* Number of children
36
What are the 4 types of measurements?
* Nominal/ Categorical
* Set of **categories**
* **No significant ordering**
* Ordinal
* Values assigned to **indicate order**
* **Not magnitude (gaps)**
* Interval
* **Actual** amount
* **Equal units**
* **No 'real' zero** - Arbitrary
* Ratio
* **Actual** amount
* **Equal** units
* Has a **'real' zero**
37
What is the difference between interval and ratio measurements?
* Interval
* Has **no real zero**
* Temperature - 0 degrees celcius does not mean no temperature
* Cannot make a ratio - score of 4 is not double 2
* Ratio
* Has a **real zero**
* Can make a ratio - score of 4 is double 2
38
How can consistency between two variables be shown?
* Positive relationship
* 2 measurements change **together in the positive direction**
* **High X correlates to High Y**
* Negative relationship
* 2 measurements **change in opposite directions**
* **High X correlates to Low Y**
39
What is validity?
* The **degree** to which a measurement process **measures the variable that it claims to measure**
40
What are 6 methods used to measure validity?
* Face
* **Subjective judgment**
* Superficial appearance
* Concurrent
* Using **two measurements** and showing a **similar relationship in their respective results**
* One is **new**, one is **better-established**
* Predictive
* Accurate prediction **aligned to a theory**
* Construct
* **Same results as previous** research
* Convergent
* Creating **2 different methods** → **Similar results**
* **Same construct**
* Divergent
* **Little or no relationship**
* **Different constructs**
41
What is reliability?
* Stability or **consistency of the measurement**
* **Same individuals, conditions** → **Identical measurements**
42
What errors can cause an inconsistency in measurement?
* Observer Error
* **Person making measurements** makes **human errors**
* Environmental Changes
* **Hard to maintain exact same condition**
* Participant Changes
* **Participants condition can *change***
43
What are the types of reliability?
* Test-retest
* Comparing **2 successive measurements**
* Calculate **correlation**
* **Parallel-forms** → When **different measuring instruments** are used
* Inter-rater
* Degree of **agreement between 2 observers**
* Split-half
* Split **items on a test in half**
* **Separate score** for each half
* Calculate **consistency**
44
How are reliability and validity related?
* **Reliability** is a **prerequisite for validity**
* **Not necessary** for a **measurement to be valid for it to be reliabile**
45
What is accuracy?
* The degree to which a **measurement conforms to the established standard**
46
What are the 3 modalities of measurement?
* Self-Report
* Participants **give their own score/ statement**
* Physiological
* **Physiological manifestation of a construct**
* Behavioural
* **Overt behaviours** that can be **observed and measured**
47
What are the advantages of self-reports?
* Most **direct way** to **assess a construct**
* More **face validity** than **measuring a response theorised to relate to a construct**
48
What is the limitation of a self-report?
* Easy for **participants to distort**
* **Undermines validity**
49
What is the advantage of physiological measures?
* Extremely **objective**
50
What are the limitations of physiological measures?
* Typically require **expensive or unavailable equipment**
* Presence of **monitoring devices** creates **unnatural situation**
* Cause **different reaction** compared to **normal circumstances**
* Question to **whether they provide a valid measure** of the construct
51
What are advantages to using behavioural measures
* **Vast number of options**
* Possible to **select behaviours** that **seem the best for defining the construct**
* **Sometimes the variable itself**
52
What is a research strategy?
* Embodied, strategic approach to conducting research → Determined by the kind of question that the research study hopes to answer
* Concerned with what you hope to accomplish in a research study
53
What are the types of research strategies?
* Descriptive
* Correlational
* Experimental
* Quasi-Experimental
* Non-experimental
54
What is a descriptive research strategy?
* Measurement and description of the natural state of individual variables as they are experience by a certain group of people
* Only one that focuses on individual variables
* No experimentation
* Nothing manipulated
* Observation only
* Goal → Obtain snapshot of specific characterisitics of a specific group of individuals
55
What is a linear relationship?
* Datapoints produced by two variables tend to form a straight-line pattern
56
What is a curvilinear relationship?
* Consistent, predictable relationship between two variables that produces a curved line
57
What is a correlational research strategy?
* Investigation of relationships between variables
* Each variable measured with numerical scores
* No manipulation
* Observed as they naturally exist
* One group of participants
* Participants provide data for each variable (typically 2)
* Only association → NOT cause and effect
58
What is an experimental research strategy?
* Determining cause and effect
* Manipulation of the hypothesised IV
* Use of carefully controlled experimental conditions in order to increase internal validity
59
What is a quasi-experimental research strategy?
* Attempts to determine cause and effect → But can never produce an unambiguous explanation
* Uses some of the rigor and control that exist in experiments → However always contain a flaw that prevents...
* An absolute cause and effect answer
* E.g. Using preexisting groups
* Almost, but not quite experiments
60
What is a non-experimental research strategy?
* Relationship
* Not cause and effect
* 2 or more groups of people - One variable
* Variables observed in a natural state without manipulation
61
Distinguish between non-experimental and correlational research strategies
* Non-experimental
* Compares 2+ groups measuring one variable
* Correlational
* Uses 1 group of participants measuring 2 variables
62
What is a research design?
* General plan for implementing a research strategy
* Specifies whether the study will...
* Involve groups or individual participants
* Make comparisons within a group or between groups
* Have a certain amount of variables
63
What is a research procedure?
* An exact, step-by-step description of a specific research study
* How the variables will be manipulated, regulated and measured
* How many individuals will be involved
* How the individual participants or subjects will proceed through the course of the study
64
What is a population?
* Entire set of individuals of interest to a researcher
* Results are generalised to population despite them not all participating in an experiment
65
What is a sample?
* Set of individuals selected from a population
* Usually intended to represent the population in a research study
66
What are the types of populations?
* Target
* Defined by the researcher's specific interests
* Not easily available
* Accessible
* Portion of target population consisting of individuals who are accessible to be recruited as participants in the study
67
What is representativeness?
* Extent to which the characteristics of the sample accurately reflect the characteristics of the population
68
What is a representative sample?
* Sample with the same characteristics as the population
69
What is a biased sample?
* Sample with different characteristics from those of the population
70
What is selection/ sampling bias?
* When participants or subjects are selected in a manner that increases the probability of obtaining a biased sample
71
What is the law of large numbers?
* The larger the sample size, the more likely it is that values obtained from the sample are similar to the actual values for the population
72
What is sampling?
* Process of selecting individuals to participate in a research study
73
What is probability sampling?
* Exact size of population is known
* Possible to list all of the individuals
* Each individual in the population has a specified probability of selection
* Same probability → Unbiased selection
* Random = Every possible outcome equally likey
* Free of selection bias BUT does not guarantee representative sample
74
What is nonprobability sampling?
* Researcher does not know population size
* Method of selection is biased
* Greater risk of producing a biased sample
* Attempt made to control for factors that may introduce sampling bias
75
What is simple random sampling?
* Equal chance of being selected
* (Sometimes) Each selection is independent of others
* Choice of one individual does not influence another's
* Steps
* Clearly define population from which you want to select a sample
* List all members of population
* Use random process to select individuals from list
76
What are the two methods of random sampling?
* Sampling with replacement
* Individual selected → Return before next selection
* Keeps probability constant
* Ensures selections are independent
* Sampling without replacement
* Individuals selected → Removed from population before next selection
* No individual appears more than once in a single sample
* Probability changes
* Selections are not independent
77
What is a limitation of simple random sampling?
* Leaves selection to chance → Can obtain distorted sample in short run
* Fix with additional restrictions
78
What is systematic sampling?
## Footnote
Probability
* Probability sampling
* Steps
* List all individuals in population
* Randomly pick starting point on the list
* Sample created by selecting every nth name
* N = Divide population by desired sample size
* High degree of representativeness
79
What is a limitation with using systematic sampling?
* Less random than simple random sampling → Violate principle of independence
* Select one... disregard participants that aren't valid for n value → Biased against n value
80
What is stratified random sampling?
## Footnote
Probability
* Ensuring each subgroup in a population is adequately represented
* Steps
* Identify specific subgroups
* Select equal sized random samples from each subgroup → Same steps in simple random
* Combine subgroup samples into one overall sample
* Guarantees that each subgroup will be well represented
81
What are limitations of stratified random sampling?
* Distorted picture of overall population
* Subgroups represented equally but not with ratios accurate to the population
* Individuals do not have an even chance to be selected
82
What is proportionate stratified random sampling?
## Footnote
Probability
* Increasing correspondence between a sample and a population → Ensure composition matches
* Steps
* Identify subgroups
* Determine what proportion of population corresponds to each subgroup
* Sample obtained with the same proportions as the overall population
83
What are limitations of proportionate stratified random sampling?
* Creates extra work
* Matching proportions
* Hard to compare subgroups if the proportion for one group has a great discrepancy with another
84
What is cluster sampling?
## Footnote
Probability
* Individuals clustered in preexisting groups → Researcher randomly select groups instead of individuals
* Quick and easy way to obtain large sample
* Measurement of individuals can be done in groups
* One session = Group responses instead of one
85
What is a limitation of cluster sampling?
* Raise concerns about the independence of the individual scores
* Individuals within cluster → Common characteristics
* Do the measurements really represent separate individuals?
86
What is combined-strategy sampling?
* Combine 2+ sampling strategies to select participants
* Optimise chances that a sample is representative of a widely dispersed population
87
What is convenience sampling?
## Footnote
Non probability
* Using participants that are easy to get
* Selected on basis of availability and willingness to respond
* Easy
* Less expensive
* Less time
88
What are limitations of convenience sampling?
* Does not require knowledge of population → Weak
* Does not use random process for selection → WEak
* Very little control over representativeness of sample → Strong possibility that sample is biased
89
What is quota sampling?
## Footnote
Non probability
* Identifying subgroups to be included → Establish quotas for individuals to be selected through convenience from each subgroup
* Control composition (mimics stratified)
90
What is a limitation of quota sampling?
* Sample is probably biased
91
What are ethics (5)?
* Branch of philosophy that is concerned with morality → What it means to behave morally and how people can achieve that goal
* Merit
* Integrity
* Justice
* Beneficence
* Respect
92
Name 4 historical ethics codes
* Nuremberg Code
* 10 principles written after Nazi physicians crimes agianst prisoners
* Risks against benefits → Informed consent
* Declaration of Helsinki
* Introduce written protocol
* Research reviewed by independent committee
* Belmont Report
* Guidelines as response to Tuskegee study
* Justice
* Respect
* Beneficence
* Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects
* Laws based on Belmont Report
* Institutional Review Board (IRB) → 5+ people with varying backgrounds and professions
93
What are the levels of risk for research considered by IRB?
* Exempt
* Approval = Exempt from continuous review
* Expedited
* Done by one IRB member/ separate committee under IRB authority that can only approve minimal risk research
* Greater than minimal
* Doesn't qualify for either
* Requires review from full IRB board
94
Describe the APA Ethics Code (5)
* Informed Consent
* Deception
* Active → Present misinformation
* Passive → Withhold information
* Allowed when benefits outweigh risks
* Debriefing
* Nonhuman Animal Subjects
* Humane treatment and care
* Scholarly Integrity
* Must not fabricate data or plagiarize
95
What is central tendency?
* What is most typical
* Mean
* Median
* Mode
96
What is the mean?
* Average of the scores in a distribution
* ΣX (Sum of all scores)/ n (number of scores)
* Population mean = μ
* Sample mean = M
97
When is the mean appropriate?
* Interval and ratio data
* Normal distributions
98
When is the mean inappropriate?
* Skewed/ outliers
* Pulls mean out of representative position
99
What are alternative definitions for the mean?
* Dividing Total Equally
* Amount each individual receives when the total is split evenly
* Balance Point
* Mean will always be somewhere between the lowest and highest score
100
What is the weighted mean?
* Mean for two groups of data
* Overall sum of scores for combined group
* Total number of scores in combined group
* Overall Mean = Overall sum/ Total number of values
101
Describe characteristics of the mean
* Changing a score will change the value of the mean
* ΣX but not n
* Introducing a new score or removing a score
* Change both ΣX and n
* Or stays the same if value is equal to the mean (balance maintained)
* Adding/ subtracting constant from each score
* Same constant will be added/ subtracted from mean
* Multiplying/ dividing each score by constant
* Mean will change in same way
102
What is the median?
* Middle score
* Order data from lowest to highest → Find middle
* If amount of data is even = Mean of middle two values
103
When is the median appropriate?
* When data is skewed or has outliers
* Ordinal scale of measurement
* Undetermined values
* Open-ended distributions
104
How do you find the precise median?
* Observe total number of values
* Median = Point with exactly 50% on each side
* Take a fraction of each unit in order to accumulate 50%
* Fraction = Number needed to reach 50%/ Number in interval
* E.g. 8 Boxes total, can only obtain 3 whole = Need 1/4's of next value (has 4 units) to make a whole
105
Distinguish between the median and the mean
* Mean uses concept of distance to define middle
* Values of scores
* Median uses scores to define the middle
* Scores as elements
106
What is the mode and when is it appropriate?
* Most frequent score
* Appropriate with...
* Discrete data
* Nominal scales
* Describing shape
107
What makes the mode useful?
* Determine most frequent value for any scale of measurement
* Including nominal - Where you can't calculate anything
* No sum
* Cannot list scores in order
* Only measure of central tendency that corresponds to an actual score
108
How many modes can there be within a distribution?
* Up to around 4
* 2 = Bimodal
* 2 distinct groups exist in a population
* 2+ = Multimodal
* Several peaks = no mode
109
What happens when 2 modes in a distribution have different frequencies?
* Taller peak is called major mode
* Shorter peak is called minor mode
110
Describe the measures of central tendency in relation to shapes of distributions
* Symmetrical
* Mean = Median
* Only one mode = Same value as "
* Skewed
* Mode → Onside where scores pile up
* Mean → Pulled toward extreme scores in the tail
* Median in between mode and mean
* Positive mean is greater than median
* Negative mean is smaller than median
## Footnote
Neg. mean is smaller than median because total sum of values less but still have to divide by same amount
111
Describe range
* Difference between highest and lowest scores
112
Describe interquartile range (IQR)
* IQR = Q3-Q1
* 25% = Q1 (Half of lower half)
* 50% = Median
* 75% = Q3 (Half of upper half)
* Used when median is appropriate
113
Describe standard deviation
* Average distance between scores and mean
* Always positive
* Used when mean is appropriate
114
What are the 3 steps to calculate standard deviation?
* Sum of Squares (SS)
* Sum of squared deviation scores in a distribution
* Stops negative and positive deviation scores cancelling each other out
* ΣX^2 - (ΣX)^2/n
* Variance (S^2)
* Sample = SS/n-1
* Population = SS/N
* Standard Deviation
* √s^2
115
What is the definitional SS formula?
* SS = Σ(X - μ)^2
* Find each deviation score (X - μ)
* Square each deviation score (X - μ)^2
* Add the squared deviations
116
When would the definitional SS formula not be ideal?
* When the mean is not a whole number
* Deviations all contain decimals or fractions
* Introduces rounding error
117
What is the computational SS formula?
* SS = ΣX^2 - (ΣX)^2/N
* Square each score then add the squared values
* Find the sum of the scores
* Square total
* Divide result by N
* Subtract second part from first
118
What is a problem with sample variability?
* Assumes that samples are representative of the population
* Samples tend to be less variable than population
* Biased estimate of population variability
119
How do you calculate variance and standard deviation for a sample?
* Calculate SS
* Definitional = Σ(X - M)^2
* Computational = ΣX^2 - (ΣX)^2/n
* Sample variance
* s^2 = SS/n - 1
* Sample standard deviation
* √s^2
120
Describe degrees of freedom
* df = n - 1
* Number of scores in a sample that are independent and free to vary
* Makes variance and SD less biased = More representative of population
* Dividing by smaller number results in larger value
121
If sample variance is computed by dividing by n instead of n - 1, what happens?
* Values will consistently underestimate population variance
122
When is a sample statistic unbiased?
* Average value of the statistic equal to the population parameter
123
When is a sample statistic biased?
* Average value of statistic either underestimates or overestimates corresponding population parameter
124
Describe the effect of adding a constant to each score on SD
* Will not change SD
* Each deviation score does not change
125
Describe the effect of multiplying each score by a constant on the SD
* SD is multiplied by same constant
* Distance is multiplied alongside values
126
What is critical thinking?
* Active process of information consumption (scrutiny)
127
What is a scientific argument?
* Number of statements (premises) that are intended to provide support for a conclusion
128
What is a deductive argument?
* Starts with a broad premise
* Derive suitable hypotheses to suit a theory
* Valid if it involves a conclusion that follows from its premises
* However even if valid, doesn't mean that it is sound reasoning
129
What is an inductive argument?
* Premises in the form of specific observations
* Support for a conclusion in terms of a broader inference
* Used to infer and explain results from psychological research projects
* Probabilistic support for conclusion
* Based on premises presented → Conclusion is more or less likely to be true
130
What is the difference between a deductive and inductive argument?
* An inductive argument does not provide absolute support for its conclusion
* Rather probabilistic
