Research Methods

Question 1

Empiricism:

Answer 1

Knowledge based on observations (collecting data).

Question 2

What is a theory & what does it seek to do?

Answer 2

A summary statement, a general principle, or a set of principles about a class of events which can be broad (should generate more hypotheses than precise) or precise.

1. Explain a phenomena that is assumed to be true
2. Predict new information

Question 3

What is induction and deduction?

Answer 3

Induction: A data driven theory based on previous observations.
Deduction: Researcher starts with theory or principle based on logic and then collects observations.

Question 4

What are 3 things theories should have?

Answer 4

1. Theories have to be testable (least controversial) (scientific theory) and generate hypotheses (testable predictions).
2. Theories should be based on multiple sources of information being interdisciplinary and be made from induction and deduction.
3. Theories should be parsimonious (most controversial), meaning has the fewest assumptions and simple explanations.

Question 5

What are two ways and an advantage for each way Personality Psychologists gather information?

Answer 5

1. Personology (case study): Studying a person as if they are a coherent entity. Meaning studying someone in great detail to get a clear picture of that individual (researcher is present)
   Advantage: Assessments are less formal and done in naturalistic settings.
2. Experience Sampling: People repeatedly report their current experiences via self-report (researcher not present).
   Advantage: The immediacy of data in a naturalistic setting.

Question 6

What is generalizability and how is it established?

Answer 6

Generalizability: The degree to which a conclusion applies to many people.
Establishing Generalizability: - Generally want to sample across cultures, ages, and demographics.
o WEIRD: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic

Question 7

What is a variable and what are the kinds. Explain each.

Answer 7

Variable: Something that varies across dimensions (must vary for at least two values).

Nominal/Categorical: A variable that doesn’t have levels to it. Being African is on the same level of value as being Canadian, English is on the same level as Math, etc.

Continuous: Uses numbers to categorize levels of a variable. (e.g. how are you feeling ona scale of 1-10). Scores reflect a continuum.

Question 8

What are the kind of measurments for personality? Which are most common.

Answer 8

1. Observer Ratings: The person doing the observations are doing the ratings (used commonly – especially in group activities or workplace behaviour).
2. Self-Report: An assessment done by the participant about themselves (used most commonly because information is coming from the source).
3. Inventories: When a measure includes different sbscales that measure more than one aspect of personality.
   - Useful because the researcher can administer a single questionnaire while measuring multiple constructs.

Question 9

How many levels of a variable do we need to have to establish a relationship? Which kind of study cant do this?

Answer 9

At least two.

Case studies.

Question 10

What is a correlation and what are two distinct aspects of correlation?

Answer 10

A relationship in which two variables or dimensions covary (vary systematically) when measured repeatedly.

There are two distinct aspects of correlation:
A) The direction: Positive of negative (both moving positive, both moving negative)
B) The strength: Slope

Question 11

What are two disclaimers about correlation?

Answer 11

A) Correlation is not causation because it is susceptible to reverse causality because we are unable to distinguish which variable is the predictor variable or the outcome variable.
B) Correlations are susceptible to the 3rd variable problem meaning that an unmeasured variable caused variations of strength in variables (i.e. another variable may be explaining the relationship seen).

Question 12

What are two kinds of 3rd variable confounds?

Answer 12

3rd variable could be:
1. A person confound: A personality trait not measured.
2. An environmental confound: Something occurring in the environment.

Question 13

What are the 3 factors in establishing causality? How do they get rid of reverse causality and the third variable problem)?

Answer 13

1. Covariation: We must observe that changes in one variable correspond to changes in another variable (i.e. observed relevant relationship).
2. Temporal Sequence: Changes in the first variable precede the changes in the second variable every time.
   - This gets rid of reverse causality because we know which one comes first.
3. Eliminate Confounds: Ruling out other plausible causes (i.e. personal or environmental confounds) of an event before concluding that one variable caused another to change.
   - This gets rid of the third variable problem because we can conclude that one thing is the cause and effect.

Question 14

What is a true experiment?

Answer 14

2) True Experiment: Requires manipulation of an independent(s) variable and random assignment of participants and conditions.

Independent variable: is the one we manipulate and there needs to be at least two levels (i.e. control vs. manipulated condition)

Dependent Variable: Variable that is measures and is the effect (outcome variable) in an experiment.

Question 15

What are two advantages to true experiments?

Answer 15

A) Experimental Control: Holding the variables constant eliminates environmental confounds.
B) Random Assignment: Process of randomly assigning participants into conditions to ensure every participant has an equal chance of being in each condition.

Question 16

What is Quasi-Experimental Designs and why isnt it considered a true experiment>

Answer 16

3) Quasi-Experimental Designs: Designs that have a manipulated independent variable and a non manipulated independent variable (i.e. something cannot be manipulated for ethical or other reasons).
- There is no manipulation to the second predictor variable and there is no random assignment to conditions.

Question 17

What is an advantage and disadvantage of Quasi-Experimental Designs

Answer 17

Advantage: Allows a researcher to examine how a variable cannot be manipulated interacts with eh independent variable (e.g. age differences).
Disadvantages: The 3rd variable problem can be prevalent and its not a true experiment.

Question 18

What are two things to consider when interpreting a multifactor design?

Answer 18

1. Main Effects: The effect of one predictor variable is independent of the other variable (e.g. A finding which the effect of our manipulation of self-esteem is independent from their performance. (i.e. self-esteem doesn’t matter))
2. Interactions: The effect of one independent variable effect the level of another independent variable.
   - Can be cause and effect if it’s a true experiment

Question 19

Compare and contrast correlation vs experimental

Answer 19

Correlation:
Advantage: Look at variables over time
Disadvantage: Does not show causality, no manipulation
Experimental:
Advantage: Cause and effect
Disadvantage: Settings can be artificial, limiting conclusions.

Question 20

What is reliability and test-retest reliability?

Answer 20

Reliability: Consistency across repeated measurements
Test-retest reliability: Consistency of measures across time
- Common in longitudinal research
- Consistent answers over time makes questions more reliable.

Question 21

What s internal consistency and how do we establish it?

Answer 21

Internal Consistency: Agreement among responses from items across a measurement scale.
Establishing internal consistency:
1. Split-half reliability: Take the mean of the odd numbers and do the same with the even and compare the means. If they are relatively close, then internal consistency would be established.
2. Cronbach’s alpha: Is the average correlation that exists on all the items on a measure. Acceptable number is 0.70-0.75.

Question 22

What is inter-rater reliability and how do we ensure its valid?

Answer 22

Inter-rate reliability: The degree of agreement between different observers of the same events.
- Raters should be confidential so that they answer how they truly feel, and independent so that their answers are not biased by others.

Question 23

What is validity?

Answer 23

Validity: The degree to which a measure actually measures what it’s intended to measure (i.e. accuracy).

Question 24

What is a operational and conceptual definition?

Answer 24

Operational Definition: A definition of a theoretical construct that is stated in concrete observable procedures (i.e. how it’s measured).
Conceptual definition: What we are generally studying (e.g. strong affection for another person).

Question 25

What are the 7 kinds of validity?

Answer 25

Internal construct criterion (predictive) Criterion convergent discrimminant face External

Question 26

What is internal validity

Answer 26

1) Internal Validity: The extent to which research findings have support of causality (i.e. meet the criteria of covariation, temporal sequence, and eliminating confounds).

Question 27

What is construct validity

Answer 27

2) Construct Validity: Degree to which the operational definition reflects what we are generally trying to measure. (i.e. does the independent and dependent variables represent the what we are trying to study).

Question 28

What is criterion validity

Answer 28

3) Criterion (Predictive) Validity: The degree to which a measure correlates with a separate criterion reflecting the same concept. If we give someone a measure of something, how well do we feel that that measure predict behaviours related to that trait (e.g. If people higher in neuroticism are reporting more neurotic behaviours, we would have higher criterion validity).

Question 29

what is convergent validity

Answer 29

4) Convergent Validity: The degree to which a measure that characterizes a trait, correlate strongly with another measure that characterizes the same trait (e.g. we would expect our neuroticism measure to correlate with a social anxiety measure).

Question 30

what is discriminant validity

Answer 30

5) Discriminant Validity: The degree to which a scale does not measure what it was supposed to. Can help with the 3rd variable problem (e.g. can say that neuroticism did not correlate positively with shyness).

Question 31

what is face validity

Answer 31

6) Face Validity: The extent to which something looks as if it measures what it is supposed to measure. High face validity measures are very overt about what the question is measuring

Question 32

What are the pros and cons of face validity?

Answer 32

Pros: Easier to interpret for the participant and researcher Cons: Participants may not admit their “true” feelings (researchers should plan to get spontaneity).

Question 33

What is external validity

Answer 33

7) External Validity: The extent to which findings 1. are generalizable to the general population/different groups/cultures and 2. Results provide accurate description of what naturally occurs if it happens in the real world.

Question 34

How can we strengthen external validity

Answer 34

A) Mundane Realism: Extent to which the research setting resembles the real world setting of interest (i.e. making the environment as realistic as possible). B) Experimental Realism: Making experimental procedures that lead participants to behave naturally and spontaneously through: 1. Deception: Providing participants with false information about experimental procedures/goals. 2. Confederates: An individual who behaves as if they are another participant.

Question 35

What is debriefing

Answer 35

A disclosure made the participants after research procedures are completed to explain the purpose of the study and resolve any negative feelings and emphasize the importance of the participants contribution to the study.

Question 36

What are three ways a researcher can loose validity

Answer 36

1. Response sets Acquiescence social social desirabilty

Question 37

what are response sets

Answer 37

Response sets: A biased orientation to answering. A person has a certain agenda as to who they are answering items which makes it harder to have accurate results.

Question 38

what is acquiescence, how can we avoid it?

Answer 38

Acquiescence: The tendency to say yes or agree which every question (i.e. not paying attention). How to avoid: Reverse scoring items

Question 39

what is social desirability and how can we avoid it

Answer 39

Social Desirability: Responding to measures that portrays an individual favourably. How can we predict social desirability bias: 1. More face valid items are more susceptible to sociallu desirable response so make the questions more covert. 2. Administer a socially desirable response scale in the measures and compare the responses with a self-report and behavioural measure.