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Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A

Researcher manipulates the IV to see the effect on the DV in an artificial setting

High internal validity due to control over extraneous variables

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2
Q

What is a key advantage of laboratory experiments?

A

High internal validity

Strict control over extraneous variables allows for establishing cause and effect

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3
Q

What is a disadvantage of laboratory experiments?

A

Low ecological validity

Findings may not be relevant to real-world behavior

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4
Q

Why might ethical concerns arise in laboratory experiments?

A

Studies often involve deception and lack of informed consent

Participants may also find it harder to withdraw

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5
Q

What is the purpose of a pilot study?

A

Identify and resolve extraneous variables, check timing, and assess clarity of instructions

Ensures reliability and validity of the main study

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6
Q

What does test-retest reliability measure?

A

Consistency of results when the same task is repeated after a time delay

A correlation of +0.8 indicates reliable results

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7
Q

What is face validity?

A

Assessment of whether a task appears to measure what it intends to

An independent psychologist evaluates the task to confirm its validity

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8
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

Comparing a new task with a pre-existing validated task

High correlation of +0.8 indicates validity

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9
Q

What characterizes a field experiment?

A

Researcher manipulates the IV in the participant’s natural environment

Higher ecological validity compared to laboratory experiments

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10
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

The IV is changed by natural occurrence and the researcher records the effect on the DV

High ecological validity, but low internal validity due to lack of control

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11
Q

What defines a quasi-experiment?

A

The IV is due to a pre-existing difference that the researcher cannot control

Example: age, gender, or eye color

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12
Q

What is correlational analysis?

A

A research method studying the relationship between two variables without manipulating the IV

Useful for exploring relationships that cannot be ethically tested in experiments

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13
Q

What does a scatterplot show?

A

The relationship between two variables

Positive, negative, or no correlation can be identified

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14
Q

How do correlations differ from experiments?

A

Correlations show relationships without manipulation, while experiments manipulate the IV

Cause and effect cannot be established in correlations

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15
Q

What is naturalistic observation?

A

Observing participants’ behavior in their own environment without researcher intervention

Aims to capture naturally occurring behavior

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16
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

Comparison of results from two or more observers using the same behavior categories

A high correlation of +0.8 indicates reliable observations

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17
Q

What is the difference between participant and non-participant observation?

A

Participant observation involves the observer joining the group, while non-participant observation does not

Non-participant reduces bias but may limit understanding

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18
Q

What is a case study?

A

Detailed information obtained about one person or a group using various methods

Often used for unique cases where other methods are impractical

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19
Q

What are the strengths of self-report questionnaires?

A

Can tackle sensitive issues and are high in reliability due to ease of repetition

Anonymity can increase honesty in responses

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20
Q

What is a disadvantage of self-report questionnaires?

A

Potential for social desirability bias and misinterpretation of questions

This can lower the internal validity of the research

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21
Q

What is the purpose of operationalizing variables?

A

To clearly define IV and DV so they can be measured accurately

Ensures clarity in research design

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22
Q

What is the role of ethical considerations in research?

A

Ensures participants’ rights are protected, including informed consent and the right to withdraw

Ethical issues can arise from deception and lack of awareness in studies

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23
Q

What is the purpose of behavior categories in observational studies?

A

To provide clear, operationalized definitions of behaviors being observed

Helps reduce researcher bias and increases measurement validity

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24
Q

What is the goal of controlled observations?

A

To observe behavior in a manipulated environment to establish cause and effect

High reliability due to controlled conditions

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25
What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data?
Qualitative data focuses on depth of understanding, while quantitative data focuses on numerical values and statistics.
26
What are closed questions?
Questions with fixed responses, such as yes or no, or ratings.
27
What are open questions?
Questions that allow participants to express their own detailed responses.
28
What is demand characteristics?
When participants work out the true aim of a study, affecting their responses.
29
What is social desirability bias?
The tendency of participants to provide answers they think are more socially acceptable.
30
What is a pilot study?
A preliminary study to identify and improve any confusing questions and ensure the study is not too long.
31
What is test-retest reliability?
A method of assessing reliability by comparing scores from the same participants over time.
32
What indicates high reliability in a questionnaire?
A high correlation of +0.8 between test-retest results.
33
What is face validity?
The extent to which a questionnaire appears to measure what it intends to on first sight.
34
What is concurrent validity?
Comparing a newly developed questionnaire with a pre-existing validated questionnaire.
35
What is thematic analysis?
A technique for analyzing qualitative data by categorizing data into themes.
36
What is content analysis?
A method for analyzing qualitative data that can be quantified by counting categories.
37
What is an independent variable?
The variable that the researcher manipulates in an experiment.
38
What is a dependent variable?
The variable that is measured in an experiment.
39
What are extraneous variables?
Variables other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable.
40
What is a null hypothesis?
A prediction that there will be no difference or correlation between groups.
41
What does operationalising variables mean?
Defining variables clearly and precisely to ensure they can be measured objectively.
42
What are investigator effects?
When the researcher's behavior or characteristics influence the outcome of the research.
43
What is random allocation?
A method to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition.
44
What is counterbalancing?
A technique used to control for order effects by varying the order of conditions for participants.
45
What is an opportunity sample?
A sampling method where participants are selected from those available at the time.
46
What is a volunteer sample?
Participants self-select to take part in a study, often in response to an advertisement.
47
What is a random sample?
A sampling method where every individual in the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
48
What is systematic sampling?
A method where every nth individual is selected from a list or queue.
49
Fill in the blank: A _______ hypothesis predicts a specific direction of the difference or correlation.
Directional
50
Fill in the blank: A _______ hypothesis predicts a difference or correlation but no direction.
Non-directional
51
True or False: Closed questions allow for detailed participant responses.
False
52
True or False: A structured interview has pre-set questions.
True
53
What is inter-rater reliability?
The degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same phenomenon.
54
What is an extraneous variable? Give an example.
Variables other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable; e.g. environmental conditions.
55
What does qualitative data emphasize?
Depth of understanding and detailed responses.
56
What is sample bias?
Particular people are more likely to volunteer, making it harder to generalise.
57
What is a random sample?
Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
58
How is a random sample obtained?
Each participant's name is written on equal size pieces of paper and selected until the correct sample size is reached.
59
What is a disadvantage of random sampling?
Not fully representative of the target population; may pick out a freak sample.
60
What is systematic sampling?
Developing a system where every nth person is selected.
61
How is systematic sampling obtained?
Putting all of the target population in alphabetical order and selecting every nth person.
62
What is a key advantage of systematic sampling?
Avoids researcher bias; the researcher has no influence over who is chosen.
63
What is a disadvantage of systematic sampling?
Sample bias; not everyone has an equal chance of being picked.
64
What is stratified sampling?
The sample reflects the proportion of subgroups in the target population.
65
How is stratified sampling obtained?
Identify the proportion of each group and select at random until the required sample size is gained.
66
What is a key advantage of stratified sampling?
Most representative sample; reflects the relative size of subgroups.
67
What is a disadvantage of stratified sampling?
Difficult to obtain; requires more time and effort.
68
What do the BPS guidelines protect?
Participants in psychological research.
69
What is deception in research?
Participants may be lied to about the research or not given full information.
70
What is the resolution for deception?
Debrief participants after the study.
71
What is informed consent?
Participants should be fully aware of what they are expected to do.
72
What is the resolution for lack of informed consent?
Obtain presumptive consent from similar individuals.
73
What does lack of protection from harm refer to?
Participants may experience distress or embarrassment from research.
74
What is the resolution for lack of protection from harm?
Design research to avoid distress or offer support.
75
What does confidentiality mean in research?
Participant's information cannot be linked back to them.
76
What is the resolution for lack of confidentiality?
Inform participants that their information will be anonymous.
77
What does the right to withdraw mean?
Participants should be informed they can withdraw at any time.
78
What is the resolution for lack of right to withdraw?
Explain the withdrawal option before and after the research.
79
What is reliability in research?
How consistent the results are when repeated.
80
What is inter-observer reliability?
Observers watch the same subjects and compare results.
81
What correlation indicates reliable observations?
A high correlation of +0.8.
82
What is test-retest reliability?
Same participant completes the task on more than one occasion.
83
What correlation indicates reliable questionnaires?
A high correlation of +0.8.
84
What is external validity?
Can findings be generalized outside the study?
85
What reduces external validity?
Unrepresentative sample, culture bias, or unrealistic settings.
86
What is internal validity?
How accurately the research measures what it intends to.
87
What can reduce internal validity?
Subjective opinions, demand characteristics, and researcher bias.
88
What is ecological validity?
Whether data is generalizable to the real world.
89
What is temporal validity?
The extent to which findings remain true over time.
90
What is face validity?
Does it look like the questions measure what they intend to?
91
What is concurrent validity?
Comparing a new questionnaire with a pre-existing validated one.
92
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale version of research to identify problems before full-scale research.
93
What are the benefits of a pilot study?
* Identify flaws and confounding variables * Check research design * Practice conducting the study.
94
How can psychological research impact the economy?
Through therapies, education strategies, and legal system improvements.
95
What is replicability in research?
Researchers can repeat the study to check if similar findings are achieved.
96
What does objectivity in research mean?
Conclusions should not be based on personal opinions.
97
What are empirical methods?
Evidence must come from senses and be objective.
98
What is falsifiability?
The ability to prove something wrong.
99
What is a theory in science?
An explanation of a phenomenon based on observations or empirical data.
100
What is hypothesis testing?
A good theory generates a testable hypothesis that can support or contradict it.
101
What is a paradigm in science?
A shared set of assumptions and ways of investigating within a discipline.
102
What is peer review?
Independent scrutiny of research before publication.
103
What factors are considered in peer review?
* Methodology appropriateness * Design decisions * Conclusions appropriateness.
104
What are potential issues with peer review?
* Potential fraud * Bias * Rejection of valid insights.
105
What is the purpose of the abstract in a research report?
Provides a summary for other researchers to decide if they wish to read the full report.
106
What should the methods section of a report include?
* Design * Participants * Materials * Procedures.
107
What is the results section's purpose?
Presents an overall summary of the findings.
108
What does the discussion section address?
Findings, possible uses, and future areas of research.
109
What is nominal data?
Data put into categories; can only fit into one.
110
What is ordinal data?
Data that can be ranked; based on opinion.
111
What is interval data?
Data that can be ranked; based on fact.
112
What statistical tests are used for repeated measures?
* Sign Test * Wilcoxon * Related T-test.
113
What statistical tests are used for independent measures?
* Chi Squared * Mann Whitney U * Unrelated T-test.
114
What is the significance of a high correlation in statistical tests?
Indicates a strong relationship between variables.
115
What is the Wilcoxon test used for?
A non-parametric statistical test for comparing two paired groups ## Footnote It is often used when the assumptions of the t-test are not met.
116
What is the purpose of the Related T-test?
To compare the means of two related groups ## Footnote Also known as the paired sample t-test.
117
What is the definition of Independent measures?
A research design where different participants are used in each condition ## Footnote Also referred to as independent groups design.
118
What does the Chi Squared test assess?
The association between categorical variables ## Footnote It compares observed frequencies with expected frequencies.
119
When would you use the Mann Whitney U test?
To compare differences between two independent groups when the data is not normally distributed ## Footnote It is a non-parametric alternative to the independent t-test.
120
What is an Unrelated T-test?
A statistical test comparing means from two independent groups ## Footnote Also known as the independent samples t-test.
121
What is correlation in statistics?
A measure of the relationship between two variables ## Footnote Correlation does not imply causation.
122
What does Spearman’s Rho measure?
The strength and direction of association between two ranked variables ## Footnote It is a non-parametric measure.
123
What is Pearson’s r?
A measure of the linear correlation between two variables ## Footnote Both co-variables must be interval level.
124
What is the significance of a one-tailed research hypothesis?
It predicts the direction of the expected effect ## Footnote A two-tailed hypothesis does not specify a direction.
125
What does N= represent in research?
The number of participants in a study ## Footnote Alternatively, df represents degrees of freedom.
126
What is the conventional level of significance in hypothesis testing?
5% ## Footnote If not stated, it is assumed to be 5%.
127
How is the calculated value identified in statistical tests?
By examining the observed value in the text ## Footnote This value is compared against critical values.
128
What does Type One error refer to?
A false positive result in hypothesis testing ## Footnote It suggests an effect when there is none.
129
What is the consequence of using a lenient significance level?
Increased chance of Type One error ## Footnote More results may be deemed significant even if they are not.
130
What does Type Two error indicate?
A false negative result in hypothesis testing ## Footnote It suggests no effect when there is one.
131
How do you calculate degrees of freedom for a Chi-squared test?
(rows - 1) x (columns - 1) ## Footnote Example: (2 rows - 1) x (3 columns - 1) = 2.
132
What is a sign test used for?
To assess the differences between paired observations ## Footnote It involves counting positive and negative differences.
133
What does p≤0.05 signify?
The likelihood that the null hypothesis is true is less than 5% ## Footnote Indicates that results are statistically significant.
134
What are qualitative data?
Non-numerical descriptive data providing depth and detail ## Footnote Examples include interviews and open-ended questionnaires.
135
What is quantitative data?
Data that can be counted and expressed numerically ## Footnote It allows for statistical testing and analysis.
136
What is primary data?
Data collected directly from participants for a specific study ## Footnote It is tailored to the research objectives.
137
What is secondary data?
Data previously collected by others for different purposes ## Footnote It can be less reliable as it may not meet the current research needs.
138
What does a meta-analysis do?
Combines results from multiple studies to draw overall conclusions ## Footnote It utilizes secondary data.
139
What is the mean in statistics?
The arithmetic average of a set of scores ## Footnote It is sensitive to extreme scores.
140
What is the median?
The middle value in a data set when ordered ## Footnote It is not affected by extreme scores.
141
What does mode refer to in data analysis?
The most frequently occurring score in a data set ## Footnote There can be multiple modes.
142
What is the range in statistics?
The difference between the highest and lowest scores ## Footnote It shows the spread of the data.
143
What does standard deviation measure?
The amount of variance or spread of scores around the mean ## Footnote A higher SD indicates greater individual differences.
144
How do you interpret a high standard deviation?
It indicates more variation in scores around the mean ## Footnote Suggests less consistency in the data.
145
What is a scatterplot used for?
To visualize correlational data ## Footnote It shows the relationship between two continuous variables.
146
What is a bar chart used for?
To compare discrete data conditions ## Footnote Bars must be separate.
147
What characterizes a normal distribution?
It is symmetrical with the mean, median, and mode at the center ## Footnote It reflects a balanced distribution of data.
148
What does a positive skew indicate?
Most of the distribution is concentrated on the left with a tail on the right ## Footnote The mean is usually greater than the median.
149
What is involved in calculating a percentage?
Number you want to work % for x 100 / Total number ## Footnote This formula helps determine the proportion of a whole.
150
What is the formula for percentage difference?
Difference x 100 / Original number ## Footnote This helps compare changes between two values.

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