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Research methods Flashcards

1
Q

Aims

A

a general statement of intent before conducting a study

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2
Q

hypothesis

A

a statement made before the study begins stating the relationship between the variables

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3
Q

directional

A

makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated in the study

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4
Q

non directional

A

only states the differences but does not specify the nature of the differences

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5
Q

when is directional hypothesis used

A

when past study’s and already obtained information suggests the outcome

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6
Q

when is a non directional hypothesis used

A

when we have no idea what the outcome will be as there is no past relationship

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7
Q

extraneous variables

A

unwanted variables that need to be manipulated or removed so they do not affect the dependent variable.

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8
Q

confounding variables

A

any other variable which affects the dependent variable so we are unsure of the true cause of change to the DV.

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9
Q

demand characteristics

A

any clues that may give away the intent of an experiment and lead to the participant acting differently.

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10
Q

investigator effects

A

any unwanted, usually unconscious, behaviours which influence the participants.

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11
Q

randomisation

A

used to minimize the effect of extraneous or confounding variables and investigator effects by using chance wherever possible.

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12
Q

standardisation

A

used to ensure the environment and instructions are the same for all participants

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13
Q

what do we mean by experimental design ?

A

how the testing of participants is arranged to the different experimental conditions

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14
Q

independent groups

A

using two different groups to test different conditions

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15
Q

repeated measures

A

both groups experience the same condition

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16
Q

matched pairs

A

participants are matched together based on similar traits EG gender and they are either put in group A or B

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17
Q

evaluation of independent groups

A

individual differences may affect the DV and produce bias results

they are less economical because one group yields only one set of results compared to repeated measures

order effects do not occur because participants are not likely to guess the aim of the study

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18
Q

evaluation of repeated measures

A

the order of tasks may be important and the order in which they do them may affect the results

order effects arise due to boredom or fatigue after completing one task

participants could work out the aims of the study

participant variables are controlled and fewer are needed as you yield more results anyway

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19
Q

evaluation of matched pairs

A

no order effects or demand characteristics

participants can never be matched exactly

matching is time consuming

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20
Q

lab experiments

A

highly controlled environment

not always an actual lab

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21
Q

field experiments

A

IV is manipulated in a naturalistic way which mimics everyday settings - not fake, real or at least seems it

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22
Q

natural experiments

A

when a researcher takes advantage of a pre existing IV that would exist with or without the researchers input EG smoking

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23
Q

quasi experiments

A

having a pre existing difference between people like age or gender, no one has manipulated this variable

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24
Q

evaluation of lab experiments

A

easy to replicate a lab environment because a standardised procedure is used

allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables

lack of realism may produce unnatural behaviour

demand characteristics or investigator effects may bias results

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25
evaluation of field experiments
natural setting means behaviour is likely to be more realistic less likelihood of demand characteristics because participants may not know they are being studied less control over extraneous variables that could bias results, making it difficult for another researcher to replicate results participants cannot give consent
26
evaluation of natural experiments
very high ecological validity due to behaviour being more realistic less likelihood of demand characteristics can be used when it is ethically wrong to replicate IV more expensive and tine consuming no control over extraneous variables
27
evaluation of quasi experiments
high control due to lab conditions confounding variables as we cannot randomly allocate people
28
what is sampling
process of selecting a representative group from a population
29
random sample
everyone from target population has an equal chance of being chosen
30
systematic sampling
sampling frame produced and subjects are chosen in a systematic way
31
stratified sampling
researcher works out the different types of people in population and works out proportions needed for representation
32
opportunity sampling
uses willing and available people
33
volunteer sample
participants volunteer themselves
34
evaluation of random sample
free from researcher bias as it is random time consuming as full list of target population would be hard to obtain you could have an unrepresentative target population selected participants may refuse
35
evaluation of systematic sample
avoid researcher bias creates representative sample
36
evaluation of stratified sample
avoids researcher bias because one selection system has been developed there is no researcher input produces representative sample stratification cannot reflect all the ways people differ
37
evaluation of opportunity sample
convenient as researcher does not have to compile lists ETC very biased because samples are drawn from very specific areas. researcher bias also occurs as researcher picks the participants
38
evaluation of volunteer sample
it is easy and less time consuming only certain people volunteer for these types of experiments
39
what are ethics in psychology
refers to the correct rules of conduct we must follow when carrying out research. we also have a moral responsibility to protect participants from harm
40
what are the main ethical concerns we must look out for
``` informed consent deception protection from harm right to withdraw privacy and confidentiality ```
41
how do we deal with ethical issues
BPS code of conduct controls ethics in psychological studies
42
what are pilot studies
small scale versions of studies using a handful of participants. they are conducted to eliminate risk of problem in real study
43
single blind procedure
participants do not know the aims of the study
44
double blind procedure
neither participant or researcher knows the aim
45
control group
group that has nothing happen to them. this serves as a comparrison
46
naturalistic observations
happens in place where the observed behaviour naturally takes place
47
controlled observations
used when aspects of the observation must be controlled
48
covert observations
person/s are unaware they are being studied
49
overt observations
person/s know they are being watched. they have given consent
50
participant observations
researcher joins the group being studied
51
non participant observations
researcher remains separate from the group being studied
52
evaluation of naturalistic VS controlled observations
naturalistic have high external validity but are hard to replicate. controlled observations findings are less reliable but easily replicated
53
evaluation of covert VS overt
covert observations produce reliable findings because behaviour is naturalistic. however, there is issues with consent because those being observed can't consent overt observations have no ethical issues but there is validity issues because they know they are being watched
54
evaluation of participant VS non participant
participant allow the researcher to gain valuable insight into the participants lives. however, they could end up ' going native' and losing objectivity non participant does not allow insight but they do remain objective.
55
what is a correlation
measures the association between two variables, plotted on a scattergram
56
what is a correlation co-efficient and what does it tell us
statistical test of a correlation producing a number between -1 and +1 which tells us both the strength and direction of a correlation IE positive/ negative. strong/weak.
57
outline a case study
in depth analysis of an individual group.
58
features of a case study
often unusual events or people sometimes typical to develop general ideas qualitative data longitudinal
59
evaluation of case studies
they provide rich and detailed insights into rare cases. they enable studies of unusual behaviour which we would not typically be able to study. they are prone to researcher bias as the final version is subject to the selection of the researcher. often relies on self report of participants which can be unreliable.
60
what is content analysis
a type of observational research in which participants are studied indirectly via the communications they produce. the information is summarised, can be either qualitative (thematic analysis) or quantitative (coding).
61
evaluation of content analysis
many ethical issues do not apply - behaviour already exists in a public domain so consent is not needed. content analysis is flexible - qualitative and quantitative. often the communication is out of context. can often lack objectivity.
62
what is reliability
a measure of consistency
63
what are the different ways of testing reliability
test-retest on the same person | inter-observer ability - two researchers compare observations
64
how do we calculate inter-observer reliability
data collected independently by the two researchers is correlated and must exceed +.80 to be reliable
65
how can we improve reliability
training interviewers rewriting questionnaires standardising procedures operationalisation of behavioural categories
66
what is validity
whether a psychological test is legitimate
67
what are the types of validity and what do they mean
internal - have they measured what they intended to external - can findings be generalised ecological - generalise to other settings temporal - do they remain true over time face - does it look like it measure what it should concurrent -are findings similar to those found on a well established test.
68
how do we improve validity
using control groups and standardisation incorporating a lie scale within questionnaires keeping data anonymous clear behavioural categories which are not blurred and are operationalised triangulation - comparing two or more studies
69
what is a statistical test
used to determine whether a difference or association found is statistically significant. tells us if we should accept or reject a null hypothesis.
70
what are the different statistical tests
``` chi squared sign test Man - Whitney Wilcoxon Spearmans rho unrelated T related T Pearsons R ```
71
what are the three factors considered in choosing a statistical test
1) is it a difference or a correlation 2) what experimental design is being used 3) nominal, ordinal or interval data
72
outline the difference between nominal, ordinal and interval data
nominal data is categorical data ordinal data is ordered in some way interval data is based of scales of measurements such as units or milimeteres
73
what is probability
a measure of the likelihood of an event happening where 0 = not likely and 1 = very likely
74
what is significance
it tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists
75
what is a type 1 error
false positive | we wrongly reject a true null hypothesis
76
what is a type 2 error
false negative | failure to reject a false null hypothesis
77
what is the normal level of significance in psychology
0.05
78
what are the 5 features of science in psychology
``` Paradigms/paradigms shifts theory construction and hypothesis testing falsifiability replicability objectivity and the empirical method ```
79
what is a paradigm (features of science)
shared assumptions and agreed methods within science
80
what is a paradigm shift (features of science)
a scientific revolution. when there is a significant change in the dominant theory of a particular scientific discipline
81
outline theory construction and hypothesis (features of science)
A theory is a general set of laws or principles, which occurs through the gathering of evidence. once a theory has been constructed, we develop a hypothesis to test this theory.
82
what are the features of a hypothesis
clear and precise directional (states a specific difference or expected outcome) or non directional (there will be a difference. vague) operationalised variables (specific) testable
83
what is falsifiability (features of science)
a theory must be falsifiable in the sense that it admits to the possibility of being and false and can be proven false through testing. A theory is not necessarily right, it just hasn't been proven wrong yet.
84
what is replicability (features of science)
the extent to which scientific research can be repeated by others and the same results are achieved. this happens across cultures and different situations.
85
outline objectivity and the empirical method (features of science)
objectivity is minimising all sources of personal bias to not distort findings. the empirical method is the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience. A theory must be empirically tested to be scientific

psychology (11 decks)

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