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Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Independent Variable (IV)

A
  • the variable directly manipulated by the researcher in order to examine its effects
  • may have 2 or more levels ( ex: different concentrations of IV)
  • they are the “conditions being tested in the experiment”
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2
Q

Dependent Variable (DV)

A
  • the variable being measured by the researcher in a study
  • is affected by the manipulation of the IV
  • outcome of the study
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3
Q

Operationalisation

A

-making the variables in an investigation detailed and specific

Note:
It is important that both the IV and DV are operationalised so that they are testable and measurable

-We make variables detailed and specific so that another research can know what is measured, changed and how

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4
Q

Extraneous Variables

A
  • factors in an investigation that may interfere with the IV or DV and affect the findings of the study
  • situational variables and participant variables
  • variable that is not controlled
  • need to be controlled to prevent them from affecting the outcome of the study
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5
Q

Confounding Variable

A
  • an extraneous variable that is not controlled and so has an affect on the outcome of the study
  • results in the effect of the IV not being truly seen
  • it confounds(damages) the results
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6
Q

Situational Variables

A

-an extraneous variable present in the environment of the study
Ex:
Noise, distractions,light levels and temperature

  • How the study was conducted can introduce situational variables
  • can influence the study if they vary between conditions

Ex: one group of participants participate in a written task in poor light vs the groups of participants who performs the same task in good lighting

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7
Q

Order effects (under situational variables)

A

When participants improve or worsen in the second condition because they have practised or become fatigued

If a study requires participants to repeat a test, two possible implications may arise:

Participants have improved
-they became used to the test, repetition( active recall) often results in higher score

Participants have worsened
-they became tired or bored
so they do less well

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8
Q

Demand characteristics (under situational variables)

A

-when the participants alter their behaviour to meet the perceived aims of the study

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9
Q

Investigator effects

A
  • can also encourage demand characteristics
  • when a researcher unintentionally gives clues to the participants about how to behave, altering their behavior

Ex: investigator nodding his head, when the participant does the right thing

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10
Q

Participant Variables

A

-extraneous variables specific to participants in an investigation, for example, their mood, ability, personality type, upbringing

-participants bring with them various traits and tendencies that could influence the outcomes of the results
esp if a certain type of participant ( ex: a psychotic, aggressive participant )is present in one condition of the
study and not the other

  • the researcher only needs to consider what participant variables may influence the results of their study
    ex: driving ability is highly unlikely to affect a short-term memory experiment
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11
Q

What to do about Extraneous Variables?

A

Researchers either eliminate or control them

Eliminating variables= removing the likelihood of them occurring ex: putting a “silence” sign outside ex

Most extraneous variables are difficult to eliminate but they can be controlled

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12
Q

Controlling Situational Variables

A

Ways to control situational variables

  1. Standardised Procedure
  2. To combat the order effect
    - counter balancing
    - randomisation
  3. To control demand characteristics
    - single-blind technique
    - double-blind technique
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13
Q

Standardised procedure

A

-keeping the situation and procedure of a study exactly the same across all conditions of an investigation
example:
if the noise is at a certain level for one condition of the experiment, it should be exactly the same for the other conditions of the study

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14
Q

counterbalancing

A

a technique used to combat order effects/eliminate the impact of order effects

  • “Where half of the participant group experiences condition A then condition B, while the other half experiences condition B then condition A”
  • This way the order effects of either improvement or decline in performance are equally distributed in both conditions to cancel each other out
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15
Q

randomisation

A

-another technique used to combat order effects

  • based on the same principle as counterbalancing but this is an investigation
    “ where participants are randomly assigned to condition A or B as their first or second test condition”
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16
Q

single-blind technique

A
  • can be used to control demand characteristics

- when the information and aims of the study are withheld from the participants

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17
Q

double-blind technique

A
  • used to control demand characteristics encouraged by investigator effects
  • when the information and aims of the study are withheld from both the participants and the researchers
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18
Q

Controlling participant variables

A

Ways to control participant variables

  1. Use same participants in both conditions of the study
    - so data for each participant compares across all conditions
  2. Use different participants but make sure they are matched on important characteristics
  3. Random allocation
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19
Q

Random allocation

A
  • can also be used to control participant variables
  • “when participants are randomly assigned to one condition of the study or the other” basically random distribution
  • not fool proof but its is designed to prevent only a certain type of person being in one condition of the study
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20
Q

Hypothesis

A
  • statement of the predicted outcome
  • the way in which a hypothesis is written depends on whether:
    1. it is looking for a difference between conditions (as a result of the iv)
    2. it is looking for a relationship between variables (in a correlation)/trend
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21
Q

Null hypothesis

A

-“a prediction that the results will fail to show any difference (or relationship) that is consistent or systematic”
Ex:
for difference between conditions( result of IV)
-There will be no difference in the number of digits recalled whether the participants listened to classical music or jazz; any difference will be due to chance

for relationship between variables (correlation)
-there will be no relationship between the amount of time spent revising and percentage score on the test; any relationship found will be due to chance

Why we add “any difference or relationship will be due to chance”
-because it is highly unlikely that no difference will be found (due to participant variables) , there may be a very small difference (ex: 0.9%) but the difference found will be too small to be due to the manipulation of the IV

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22
Q

Alternative (experimental) hypothesis

A
  • “A prediction of the expected outcome of a study, usually based on a theory”
  • can be either a “directional hypothesis” or “non-directional hypothesis”
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23
Q

Directional hypothesis

A
  • “a hypothesis that predicts the direction the results will go in”
  • if a theory makes a clear claim, a directional hypothesis can be used ( because the theory already claims what expected direction the results will go in)

ex:
- Adults will recall more digits than children (difference in conditions)
- There will be a negative correlation between self-esteem and depression (relationship/correlation)

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24
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A
  • “a hypothesis that predicts that a difference /relationship will be found but does not specify what the direction of the difference/relationship will be”
  • if a theory does not make a clear claim, or if the evidence is mixed, then we use a non-directional hypothesis

Ex:

  • There will be a difference in the number of digits recalled by adults and children (difference in conditions)
  • There will be a correlation between self-esteem and depression ( relationship/correlation)
25
Q

Experimental hypothesis

A
  • the name given to a hypothesis when used in a field or laboratory experiment
26
Q

Target Population

A
  • the group of people that an investigation is concerned with
  • “group of people being investigated in the study”
27
Q

Sample

A

a selection of the target population that is directly studied in an investigation

  • a sample should represent the nature of the target population
  • being representative ensures that the findings of the study can be generalised to the target population
28
Q

Generalisability

A

the extent to which the results of the study represent the whole population, not just the sample used

29
Q

Sampling method

A
  • a technique used to gather a representative group of people as a sample from the target population
30
Q

Opportunity Sampling Technique

A
  • a technique that recruits participants who happen to be around at the time of the research
    This can be done either by”
    -asking people to agree to take part
    -simply studying people who happen to be there without their agreement ( covert research)
31
Q

Strengths and Weaknesses of Opportunity Sampling Technique

A

Strengths
-quickest and simplest sampling technique available to researchers

Weaknesses
Not generalisable
-can lead to a biased sample because not every member of the target population may be around at the time of the study
-only recruits people from a single area whose traits (like personality) may differ from people outside that area

32
Q

Research design

A

how participants are allocated to the conditions of the study

33
Q

Experimental design

A

the name given to a research design when used in an experiment

34
Q

Types of research and experimental design

A
  1. Independent measures design
  2. Repeated measures design
  3. Matched pairs design
35
Q

Independent measures design

Strengths and Weaknesses and Controlling Problems

A

“Participants are split into groups with each group tested in only one condition of the study”
Note:
Sometimes this is the only design possible, if age is the IV for example, a participant who is 60 cannot participate in the other condition of the experiment

Strengths

  • There are no order effects as participants only take part in one condition of the study.
  • less likely to display demand characteristics (less likely to figure out aim of the study)

Weaknesses

  • More participants are needed than for a repeated measures design
  • There may be individual differences between groups (participant variables)

Controlling Problems
Participants can be randomly allocated to each condition

36
Q

Repeated measures design

Strengths and Weaknesses and Controlling Problems

A

The same participants are used in all the conditions of the study

Strengths

  • Fewer participants are needed, making it more economical
  • There are no individual differences between conditions in the study

Weaknesses

  • Demand characteristics are more likely as participants are more able to guess the aim
  • Order effects mean that results may reflect practice or fatigue

Controlling Problems
-order effects need to be controlled through counter-balancing or randomisation

37
Q

Matched pairs design

Strengths and Weaknesses and Controlling Problems

A

Different participants are used in each condition of the study but are matched for likeness on important characteristics

Strengths
-Fair comparisons can be made between the groups as they are equally matched

Weaknesses
-It is time-consuming to match participants and not all characteristics can be equally matched

38
Q

Reliability

A

The consistency of an outcome or result of an investigation (a measure)/ how replicable the study is

-This is important in science because we can trust (rely) on the findings and know that they are not a one-off result

  • How we plan and conduct research can affect the reliability of an outcome
  • > If a standardised procedure is not used, there can be variability in the procedure , which can result in unreliable findings

-if the results can be replicated

39
Q

Reliability in Sampling Methods

A

If a sampling method or technique leads to a biased sample. then the outcome of the research may not be relied upon to occur again, as it could differ if the study was replicated

40
Q

biased sample

A

when the sample recruited is made up of a particular type of person which may not reflect the target population

41
Q

Reliability in experimental designs

A

In an independent measures design, participants differ between conditions so there is variability between groups because of participant variables. This can lead to unreliable findings.

42
Q

Validity

A

refers to the extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure

43
Q

Internal Validity

A

“whether the measures used in a test genuinely test what they’re supposed to test”
Ex: if a study is designed to measure aggression in preschool, then it is important that the measures of aggression actually test what they’re supposed test

if you implement a smoking cessation program with a group of individuals, how sure can you be that any improvement seen in the treatment group is due to the treatment that you administered?

Explanation from other sources:

  • Internal validity refers to whether the effects observed in a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor.
  • Internal validity is the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and an outcome. It also reflects that a given study makes it possible to eliminate alternative explanations for a finding.
44
Q

External Validity

A

whether the findings are generalisable to the target population
ex: the sample of preschool children in the investigation must correctly represent the intended target population

45
Q

Sample error

A

when a sample differs in qualities from the target population it intends to represent
ex: if different types of people are not proportionately represented in the sample

46
Q

Validity in sampling methods

A

if a sample error occurs then the findings of the research are untrue of the target population

47
Q

Validity in experimental design

A

The way in which participants are allocated to the conditions of the study ( the experimental design) can affect the validity of the findings

for example
If a repeated measures design is used and order effects are shown, this can mean that the outcome may be a result of practice or fatigue and not the intended variable being investigated
-similarly, demand characteristics are more likely in a repeated measures design, which can also invalidate results

48
Q

Types of Experiments

A
  1. Laboratory Experiment
  2. Field Experiment
  3. Natural Experiment
49
Q

Laboratory Experiment

A

“An investigation (procedure) staged in an artificial , controlled environment”

Laboratory Experiment

  • Researchers stage the conditions of the study and invites participants along
  • has an IV and a DV
  • aim is to discover cause and effect between these variables by controlling or eliminating extraneous variables
  • most useful for studying behavior that might not be affected by the artificial environment of the laboratory (like memory tests) and needs to be tightly controlled

Strengths

  • the most scientific of the research methods because of high levels of control
  • cause and effect can be established between the IV and DV, which can help with (internal) validity

Weaknesses

  • Conducted in an unnatural environment ( thus unnatural behavior may arise)
  • Participants are invited to the experiment so they may display demand characteristics
  • Considered reductionist because it isolates only the variables under consideration, ignoring other variables that could also be involved
50
Q

Field Experiment

A

An experiment (procedure) conducted in a natural environment (“naturalistic environment”)

A Field Experiment….
-still has an IV being manipulated by the researcher and a DV being measured

  • level of control of extraneous variables not as high because naturalistic environments are unpredictable
  • participants may or may not be aware that they are taking part in a research
  • useful when studying behavior that needs to be seen and tested in a natural environment (like conformity and obedience)

Strengths

  • conducted in a naturalistic environment so the behavior is natural
  • there is a cause and effect between the IV and DV, and some extraneous variables can be controlled

Weaknesses

  • Not all extraneous variables can be controlled because it is a real-life environment
  • Participants may be unaware that they’re taking part of an experiment so researchers may not have gained information consent
51
Q

Natural Experiment

A

“A study that examines a naturally occurring variable in a real life situation”

A natural experiment…

  • also occurs in a real-life environment
  • has an IV and DV
  • but the IV is not manipulated by the researchers as it occurs naturally

Note:
Naturalistic experiments are generally opportunist, which means that they make use of unique and naturally occurring variables that would be otherwise be difficult, or even unethical to set up

Strengths

  • The IV is naturally occurring and not manipulated
  • The environment in which participants are studied is real and authentic

Weaknesses

  • It is not possible to randomly allocate participants to the conditions of the IV, so there may be issues with participant variables that can influence the findings
  • extraneous variables are difficult to control
52
Q

Observations

A

a research method that involves watching and recording behavior

53
Q

Types of observation

A
  1. Naturalistic observation
  2. Controlled or structured observation
  3. Overt observations
  4. Covert observations
  5. Participant observations
  6. Non-participant observations
54
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

An observation conducted in an everyday environment where the behavior being studied would normally be seen

  • people in a naturalistic observation are expected to behave normally and spontaneously and the researcher will record what they see
  • are suitable when studying everyday behavior
55
Q

Controlled or structured observation

A

An observation carried out in a laboratory or controlled environment

  • a researcher may stage a situation or set up the environment to encourage the behavior they are trying to investigate
  • suitable for when it may not be practical for an observer to wait for a behavior to occur naturally
56
Q

Overt Observation

A

An observation conducted with the participant’s knowledge that they are being observed as part of an investigation

Note:

  • Structured observations tend to be overt because participants are invited to the controlled environment
  • Naturalistic observations can be either overt or overt
57
Q

Covert Observation

A

An observation conducted without the participant’s knowledge that they are being observed and form part of an investigation

Note:
Naturalistic observations can be either overt or covert

58
Q

Participant Observation

A

When an observer is involved in the group that they are observing

59
Q

Non-participant Observation

A

the observer watches and records people without being actively involved

Psychology (2 decks)

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