Research methods Flashcards
1
Q
What is the aim in a psychology project?
A
A statement of what the researcher intends to find out in a research study.
2
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A precise / testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables.
3
Q
What is the independent variable in a study?
A
Some event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effects on the dependent variable.
4
Q
What is the dependent variable in a study?
A
The outcome that has been manipulated by the independent variable.
5
Q
What is informed consent?
A
Participants must be able to give comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order for the participant to be able to make an informed decision about whether to participate or not.
6
Q
What is to operationalise?
A
Variables are in a form that can be easily tested.
7
Q
What is debriefing? (2)
A
Debriefing is a post research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore the state they were in at the start of the study. May be also used to gain feedback about the study.
8
Q
What are ethical issues?
A
Concerning questions of right or wrong.
9
Q
What are extraneous variables?
A
Not an alternative to the IV but may have an effect of the dependent variable. Uncontrollable and make it more difficult to detect a significant effect.
10
Q
What are standardised procedures?
A
Set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study.
11
Q
What is a good name to remember IV and DV
A
Ivy Deevy. First is the IV which leads to a change in the DV.
12
Q
What is counterbalancing?
What experimental design is it used in?
A
Ensures each condition in a repeated measures design is tested first or second in equal amounts.
Repeated measures design.
13
Q
What is a repeated measures design?
A
Each participant takes part in every condition under test.
14
Q
What are the limitations of a repeated measures design?
(2) strengths self-explanatory, use info from the other methods
A
An order effect: less anxious cause of a practice effect or a boredom effect.
May also guess the purpose of the experiment in the second test.
15
Q
Ways to deal with the limitations of repeated measures design?
(2)
A
Counterbalancing splitting the groups up and testing them and seeing whether there are similar results between the two groups.
A cover story could be presented.
16
Q
What are independent groups design?
A
Participants are allocated to two or more groups representing different levels of the IV.
17
Q
What are the limitations of an independent groups design?
(2) strengths self-explanatory, use info from the other methods
A
Researcher cannot control the effects of participants (i.e different abilities or characteristics of each participant)
Need more participants that repeated design to get the same amount of data.
18
Q
Ways to deal with the limitations of an independent groups design?
A
Random allocation, participants to conditions distributing participant variables evenly
19
Q
What are matched pairs design?
A
Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person is allocated to the other condition.
20
Q
What are the limitations of matched pairs design?
(2) strengths self-explanatory, use info from the other methods
A
Time consuming, and difficult to match participants on key variables.
Not possible to control all participant variables because you can only match on variables known to be relevant.
21
Q
Ways to deal with the limitations of matched pairs design? (2)
A
Restrict the number of variables to match to make it easier.
Conduct a pilot study to consider key variables that might be important when matching
22
Q
What is a lab experiment?
A
Conducted in a special environment where variables are carefully controlled - High internal validity but low ecological validity as ppts tend to know they are being studied.
23
Q
Give 2 strengths of lab experiment.
A
- Well controlled, extraneous/confounding variables minimised high internal validity.
- Easily replicated, demonstrating external validity.
24
Q
A weaknesses of lab experiment.
A
- Ppts may not behave how they do in everyday life - lower ecological validity.
- Materials may lack mundane realism. (everyday life)
25
What is a field experiment?
Conducted in a more natural environment.
26
Give 2 strengths of field experiment.
- Higher mundane realism/ecological validity.
| - Ppts usually not aware of the study.
27
Give 2 weaknesses of field experiment.
- Less control of extraneous/confounding variables.
| - More time consuming + expensive.
28
What is a natural experiment?
Not possible to manipulate IV. Simply observe effects DV in natural experiment.
29
Give 2 strengths of natural experiment.
- IV cannot be manipulated for ethical/practical reasons.
- Enables psychologists to study real problems such as the effects of a disaster on health. High mundane/ecological validity.
30
Give 2 weaknesses of natural experiment.
- Cannot demonstrate casual relationships as IV is not directly manipulated.
- Random allocation not possible, more confounding variables.
31
What is a quasi experiment?
IV naturally varies but the DV can be measured in a lab setting. IV is a characteristic of the person.
32
A strength of quasi experiment.
Allow comparisons between types of people
33
Give 2 weaknesses of quasi experiment.
- Extraneous/confounding variables.
| - Sample bias, cannot control who is being tested.
34
What are demand characteristics?
Ppt knows/works out aims of the study which makes them behave differently.
35
What is a single blind design?
Ppt not aware of research aims and/or of which condition of the experiment they are receiving.
36
What is a double blind design?
Experimenter/ppt does not know aim of study so cannot be led.
37
What is experimental realism?
Task is engaging so ppt don't attempt to guess the aim of the study. Forgets they are being observed.
38
What is an opportunity sample?
Recruitment who are most convenient / easily available at the time of study.
39
What is a strength and a weakness of an opportunity sample?
S- easiest method/least amount of time used.
| W- Inevitably biased as sample drawn from a small area.
40
What is a random sample?
Everybody in population has an equal chance of being chosen - lottery method, all in a hat.
41
What is a strength and a weakness of an random sample?
S- unbiased; everyone has an equal chance.
| W- Time consuming need a long list and a lot of contact details.
42
What is a stratified sample?
Subgroups within a population eg: boys aged 10-17 and ppts are then randomly selected from the subgroups.
43
What is a strength and a weakness of an stratified sample?
S- More representative than other methods- proportional and randomly selected.
W- very time consuming identifying subgroups.
44
What is a systematic sample?
Sample obtained by using nth term. Numerical interval applied consistently.
45
What is a strength and a weakness of an systematic sample?
S- unbiased as ppts are selected through an objective system.
W- Not truly unbiased unless you select a number using a random method and start with this person.
46
What is a volunteer sample?
Advertising in newspaper, noticeboard or internet.
47
What is a strength and a weakness of an volunteer sample?
S- Access to a wide variety of ppts nay make some more representative/less biased.
W- Ppts biased in other ways - more highly motivated. Volunteer bias.
48
What is informed consent?
Ppts must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order for them to make an informed decision about whether to participate.
49
What is deception?
Ppt not told the true aims of a study and thus cannot give truly informed consent.
50
What is the right to withdraw?
Ppts stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way. Especially important in cases where it was not possible to give fully informed consent.
51
What is protection from physical and psychological harm?
During a research study ppts should not experience negative physical or psychological effects such as physical injury or lowered self-esteem.
52
What is confidentiality?
Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that information will be protected.
53
What is privacy?
A person's right to control the flow of information about themselves.
54
What are the strategies to deal with ethical guidelines? (4)
- Ethical guidelines
- Cost-benefit analysis
- Ethics committee
- Punishment
55
What is a strength of BPS ethical guidelines?
-Offers clarity so everyone should be able to understand and follow these guidelines.
56
What is a weakness of ethical guidelines?
- BPS guidelines are inevitably general because of the virtual impossibility of covering every situation.
- Tends to close off discussions about what is right and wrong because answers are provided +,-
57
What is a cost benefit analysis?
It is the costs of doing the research against the benefits.
Costs and benefits can be judged from ppts POV where we might list distress, loss of time v payment for ppt and a feeling of having contributed to scientific research.
Or through perspective of society.
58
What is a limitation of cost-benefit analysis?
- Cannot predict costs/benefits beforehand.
| - Just creates new dilemmas.
59
What do the ethics committee do in dealing with ethical issues?
Approve studies based on cost-benefit considerations.
60
What punishment is there if you defy ethical issues?
May be barred from work as a psychologist.
| Acts as a deterrent.
61
What are the 6 ethical issues?
- Informed consent
- Deception
- The right to withdraw
- Protection from harm
- Confidentiality
- Privacy
62
What are 2 ways to deal with informed consent?
- Signing a document, formally indicating your agreement to participate.
- Offered high right to withdraw
- Alternatively gain presumptive consent - hypothetical agreement.
63
What are the limitations of informed consent? (2)
- If ppts are told full info of study it may invalidate the purpose of the study.
- May not still fully understand what they have got into.
64
What are 2 ways of dealing with deception?
- Should be approved by ethics committee
| - Should be fully debriefed after study.
65
What are the limitations of deception?
- Cost-benefit decisions are flawed because they involve subjective judgments.
- Cannot reverse the effects of the study.
66
How do you deal with the right to withdraw?
-Informed at the beginning the ppt right to withdraw.
67
What are the limitations of the right to withdraw?
- Ppts feel not comfortable to withdraw because they think it will ruin the study.
- Paid or rewarded, feel inclined to go ahead with it.
68
How do you deal with protection from harm?
- Avoid any risks greater than experienced in everyday life.
| - Stop study if harm is suspected.
69
What are the limitations with protection from harm?
Harm may not be obviously present at the beginning of the study only post study; but it is too late then.
70
How do you deal with confidentiality?
- Researchers should not record the names of any ppts.
| - Should use false names to represent individuals.
71
What are the limitations with confidentiality?
Sometimes possible to work out who the ppts were using info they provided such as geographical location.
72
What is a naturalistic observation?
An everyday setting. Investigates but does not interfere just observes.
73
What is a strength and weakness of a naturalistic observation?
S: realistic picture of spontaneous behaviour. High ecological validity.
W: little control of other things happening, something unknown may happen observer not aware of.
74
What is a controlled observation?
Investigation where behaviour is observed, but under certain variables organised by researcher.
75
What is a strength and weakness of a controlled observation?
S: can focus on particular aspects of behaviour.
W: control comes at the cost of environment feeling unnatural.
76
What is an overt observation?
Studies where ppts are aware they are being studied/
77
What is a strength and weakness of a overt observation?
S: ppts will have given some form of consent if they are in the study.
W: ppts know they are being studied, may affect their behaviour.
78
What is a covert observation?
Study whereby ppt not aware they are being studied.
79
What is a strength and weakness of a covert observation?
S: more natural behaviour.
W: cannot technically give consent.
80
What is a ppt observation?
Observation made by someone who is participating.
81
What is a strength and weakness of a participant observation?
S: may gain insights of behaviour from inside otherwise not gained.
W: ppt not likely to know, have issues with ppt awareness.
82
What is a non-participant observation?
Observer separate from participant.
83
What is a strength and weakness of a non-participant observation?
S: more likely to be objective, not part of a group.
W: more likely to be covert - ethical issues involved.
84
What is an unstructured observation?
Researcher records all behaviour but has no system of doing so.
85
What is a strength and a weakness of an unstructured observation?
S: can be used in a pilot study to see what behaviours come up.
W: too vast to analyse, a lot of unnecessary behaviour being recorded.
86
What is a structured observation?
An observation with clear procedures that do not change. Used to ensure rigour and objectivity.
87
What are the 2 main structured observation techniques?
- Behavioural categories
| - Sampling procedures
88
What are behavioural categories?
Dividing behaviour of interest into sets of specific and operationalised behaviours.
89
What are sampling procedures?
Systematic, when continuous observation is not possible.
90
What are questionnaires? (3)
- A set of written questions used to collect info about a topic.
- Questions permit people to say what they think and feel
- Questions always predetermined
- Needs to be specific and objective.
91
What are 2 strengths of a questionnaire?
- People may be more open
- Large sample obtained
- Cheap
92
What are 2 weaknesses of a questionnaire?
- Only people who can read and write can take part.
- Cross-cultural issues
- Open questions difficult to analyse.
93
What is an unstructured interview? (Self-report techniques)
Interview sets out the general topic they are interested in, then guided by interviewee with further questions.
94
What is a structured interview? (Self-report techniques)
Predetermined questions, essentially a questionnaire delivered face to face. No deviation from questions.
95
What is a strength and a weakness of an unstructured interview?
S: can have more in depth responses with open questions, detailed data.
W: more difficult to turn into data. Time consuming
96
What is a strength and a weakness of an structured interview?
S: can be easily repeated because questions are standardised. Easier to analyse, answers are more predictable.
W: if the interviewer acts different occasions. Get less detailed, in depth responses.
97
What is clarity of questions about? (Self-report design) (2)
- Wording should be unambigious.
- Does not contain double negative or double barrel questions.
- Easily understood.
98
Why use question clarity? (Self-report design) (2)
- Improves validity of answers.
| - If questions lack clarity, ppts may interpret them incorrectly or leave them blank.
99
What are unbiased questions about? (Self-report design)
Avoid leading questions eg: "how poor is your short term memory?" as it could be the ppt to think only of their weakness.
100
Why use unbiased questions? (Self-report design) (2)
- Tend to produce qualitative data that can give you a deeper insight.
- If wording of a question indicates a certain answer it may influence ppt.
101
What are open questions?
Questions that invite respondents to provide their own answer.
102
Give a strength and a weakness of a open question.
S: Ppts not forced into answer that may truly represent their view.
W: Most respondents may simply avoid giving lengthy complex answers which Tf defeats the purpose of open questions.
103
What are closed questions?
Questions that have a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one.
104
Give a strength and a weakness of a closed question.
S: Quantitative (numerical data) can be drawn which makes it easy to analyse as responses can be transferred to graphs.
W: respondents may be forced to select answers that do not represent how they properly feel.
105
What are filler questions?
Irrelevant questions included to distract respondent from main purpose of survey.
106
Why use filler questions?
Reduce chance of ppts working out aim which would lead to demand characteristics.
107
What is a correlation?
Determining the extent of the association between two variables. If they both increase together it is known as a positive correlation. If one increases and the other decreases it is known as a negative correlation.
108
What is a positive correlation? (eg: age and beauty)
2 variables increase together
109
What is a negative correlation? (eg: age and beauty)
One variable increases, other decreases
110
What is a zero correlation? (eg: age and beauty)
No correlation between variables
111
What is a correlational hypothesis?
Hypothesis states the expected results is called the alternate (or correlational) hypothesis as it is an alternative to the null hypothesis.
112
What is a correlational coefficient?
Numerical measure of some type of correlation, meaning a statistical relationship between two variables. Variables may be two columns of a given data set of observations OR two components of a multivariate random variable with a known distribution.
113
2 strengths of a correlation?
- Used to investigate trends in data.
| - Procedures in correlations can be easily repeated.
114
2 weaknesses of a correlation?
- No conclusion can be made, no deliberate change.
| - Possible unknown variables cause intervening variables that can explain why the co-variables being studied are linked.
115
What is a scattergram?
Graphical representation of the correlation if the two sets of scores.
116
What is a systematic review?
Review of research, identifying an aim and then searching for studies that have addressed similar aims.
117
What is a meta-analysis?
Findings from a number of studies are used to produce a statistical result which represents an overall effect. Effective as it shows a measure of strength between the 2 variables.
118
What is a case study?
Detailed study of a single individual, institution or event etc...
Information can be drawn from a range of sources: observation, diary accounts, family and friends.
119
What is content analysis?
Indirect observation, not the observation of people directly but the observation of books, songs, tv programmes, painting.
120
What is a strength and a weakness of a meta-analysis?
S: Validity of your study increases if it can be linked to others.
W: Study are not truly comparable because there are so many research design differences.
121
What is a strength and a weakness of a case study?
S: rich in depth data.
Complex interaction of many variables can be studied in contrast with experiments where variables are held constant.
W: difficult to generalise as the cases are unique with individual differences.
Also a lot of its research involves retrieving info from the past, this can be unreliable.
122
What is a strength and weakness of content analysis?
S: High ecological validity as it is to do with the present.
W: observer bias reduces objectivity and validity of findings.
123
What is the range and what do you have to do before getting your answer?
Range is the difference between the highest and lowest number. You then add 1 because eg: 3 could be 3.5 or 2.5.
124
Strength and a weakness of a mean?
S: Most sensitive measure as it takes into the exact distance between all of the values.
W: can be easily distorted by any outliers.
125
Strength and a weakness of a median?
S: not affected by extreme scores.
easier than calculating a mean.
W: Not as sensitive, exact numbers are not a reflect on the final calculation.
126
Strength and a weakness of a mode?
S: unaffected by extreme scores.
Much more useful for discrete data.
W: not a useful way of describing data when there are several modes.
127
Strength and a weakness of a range?
- Easy to calculate
| - Affected by extreme values.
128
Strength and a weakness of a standard deviation?
- precise measure of dispersion
| - may hide extreme values.
129
What is standard deviation?
Measure of the average distance between each data item above and below the mean, ignoring +,- values.
130
What is nominal data? Ordinal? Interval?
Nominal: data in separate categories.
Ordinal: data is ordered.
Interval: measured using units of equal intervals.
131
What are the mean, median and mode all a part of?
Measures of central tendency.
132
What are the range and standard deviation a part of?
Measures of dispersion.
133
What is a histogram?
Area within bars must be proportional to frequencies.
No gaps in bars.
Horizontal axis - continuous.
134
What is a line graph?
Continuous data on x axis.
| Marked with a cross.
135
What are tables?
Measurements collected as raw data, numbers descriptive statistics have been carried out.
136
What is a bar chart?
Heights of bar represents frequency of each time.
| Especially suitable for data that is not continuous space left between bars to indicate lack of continuity.
137
What is normal distribution?
Classic bell shape.
Symmetrical distribution
Dispersion of scores or measurements are either side of mid point.
138
What is a skewed distribution?
Not equally distributed around mean. Minority either left skewed or right skewed.
139
What is quantitative data?
Quantity, numerical and data which can be easily measured.
140
What is qualitative data?
Data which cannot be counted, quality. Descriptions are observed.
141
Strength and weakness of quantitative data.
S: Easy to analyse.
-Can draw conclusions easily
W: data may oversimplify reality.
Closed questions lead people into answers that don't represent feelings.
142
Strength and weakness of qualitative data.
S: provide detailed information which provides unexpected insights into thoughts and behaviours.
W: Complexity of data makes it difficult to analyse/make conclusions.
143
What is primary data?
Information observed or collected directly from first hand experience.
144
What is secondary data?
Information used in research study that was collected by someone else or for a purpose other than the current one.
145
Give a strength and weakness of primary data.
S: control researcher has over the data - data collection can be tailored to fit aim/hypothesis.
W: lengthy Tf expensive process.
146
Give a strength and weakness of secondary data.
S: simpler to access someone else's data / cheaper.
W: data may not fit needs of study.
