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Psychology > Research Methods (AS) > Flashcards

Research Methods (AS) Flashcards

1
Q

What’s an experimental method

A

Where you measure one variable (dependent) by manipulating the other variable (independent) while the other variables are held constant

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2
Q

What’s an independent variable

A

The variable you manipulate

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3
Q

What’s the dependent variable

A

The variable you measure

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4
Q

What’s operationalising

A

Turning psychological variables into measurable ones

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5
Q

What’s extraneous variables

A

Variables other than the independent variable that may have an effect on the dependent variable

If not controlled, they become confounding variables

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6
Q

What’s a confounding variable

A

Uncontrolled extraneous variables that negatively effect the results

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7
Q

The research cycle

A
  • Data observation E.g. I like music when I study
  • Theory E.g. I learn better when music is playing
  • Investigate, E.g. compare how much is learnt in silence or eight music playing
  • Results of investigation (support or challenge theory)
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8
Q

What are the 4 different types of experiments

A

Laboratory experiment
Field experiment
Natural experiment
Quasi experiment

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9
Q

Describe a laboratory experiment

A
  • A lab experiment is in an artificial environment (experimenters environment)
  • Experimenter manipulates the IV to see its effect on the DV
  • Controlled environment, therefore little to no extraneous variables
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10
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a lab experiment

A

Advantages= -Can control variables (no extraneous variables)
-No extraneous variables= Clear cause and effect

Disadvantages= -Difficulty generalising these results to real life
-Unnatural- People may act different (demand characteristics)

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11
Q

Describe a field experiment

A
  • Researcher still manipulates the IV and the DV is still measured
  • The environment is NOT controlled
  • The experiment takes place in an environment natural to the participant
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12
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment

A

Advantages= - Natural environment, therefore reduce demand characteristics
- Behaviour is easy to generalise as participants are unaware they’re being studied (no demand characteristics)

Disadvantages= -Harder to replicate
-More difficult to establish cause and effect because cannot control extraneous variables

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13
Q

Describe a natural experiment

A
  • Researcher has no control over the IV, it varies naturally
  • In participants natural environment
  • Environment is not controlled
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14
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a natural experiment

A

Advantages= -High in ecological validity as IV is naturally occurring
- Ethical as there’s no harm to participants caused by Researcher

Disadvantages= Researcher has no control over variables, therefore may be difficult to measure cause and effect

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15
Q

Describe a Quasi experiment

A
  • To investigate relationships between an IV and DV in situations where IV is a characteristic of a person
  • IV is not manipulated as it’s a characteristic of a person E.g. age, sex, personality
  • If we can manipulate the IV it’s not quasi
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16
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a quasi experiment

A

Advantages= -Researcher can have control over the design of the study and other extraneous variable— experiment can take place in a laboratory for example. Therefore, can measure cause and effect easier

Disadvantages= -Sample bias- cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions, so other variables may have an effect. Reducing validity

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17
Q

Examples of non-experimental methods

A
  • Questionnaires
  • Interview
  • Case study
  • Observation
  • Correlation
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18
Q

Observational studies involve what

A

Watching and recording people’s behaviour

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19
Q

What are the two observational techniques

A
  • Naturalistic

- Controlled

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20
Q

What’s the naturalistic observational technique

A
  • Observing and noting behaviour in a natural environment. E.g. Watching animals in their natural environment
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21
Q

What’s the controlled observational technique

A
  • Setting up a situation and observing and noting behaviour. E.g. watching animals where they have been given particular play items
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22
Q

What’s Participant observations

A

Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed

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23
Q

What’s non-Participant observations

A

The observer is separate from the people being observed

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24
Q

What’s a covert observation

A

Observing people without their knowledge

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25
Q

What’s an Overt observation

A

Observing people who are aware they’re being studied

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26
Q

What’s time sampling

A
  • Recording data at particular intervals

E.g. what an individual does every 30 seconds

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27
Q

What’s event sampling

A

A target behaviour/event is recorded every time it is observed

E.g. every time a student screams

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28
Q

What type of observations tend to have high ecological validity

A

Naturalistic and covert

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29
Q

How can observations have observer bias

A

If the observer has expectations of what he expects to happen, he may only record that data which fits with his theory

E.g. observer thinks boys are more aggressive than girls, he may over record instances of boys shaving aggressively and under record when girls are being aggressive

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30
Q

How can you reduce observer bias

A
  • Using more than one observer

- Using double blind technique, where the observer doesn’t know the aims of the study

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31
Q

Why do observations often have low reliability

A

Because they can be difficult to replicate, as they take place at a specific place and time

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32
Q

How can reliability be assessed

A

Using inter-observer reliability

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33
Q

Advantage and disadvantage of overt observations

A

Advantage= - Participants know they’re being observed therefore its ethical

Disadvantage= - However, they know they’re being observed therefore demand characteristics therefore low in ecological validity

  • Covert observations are the opposite
34
Q

What are structured interviews

A

Questions that are decided before-hand

35
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a structured interview

A

Advantages= - Reliable as they can be replicated
- Its efficient therefore, can interview more

Disadvantages= - Lack of flexibility- can lack depth
- Investigator effects as the investigator can affect how you answer questions

36
Q

What are unstructured interviews

A

Questions are not decided before hand

37
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of unstructured interviews

A

Advantages= - Go into much more detail

  • Participant is able to express themselves further
  • More relaxed, easier to be truthful about sensitive areas

Disadvantages= - Difficult to stay focused on the main point
- Hard to compare

38
Q

Design of interviews should include

A

1) Interview schedule = Standardised list of questions that interviewer needs to cover, can reduce interviewer bias
2) Quiet room = increase likelihood of interviewee being more open
3) Rapport = Begin with neutral questions to make participants relaxed
4) Ethics = Remind interviewees that answers will be treated

39
Q

What are closed questions

A

Questions that give a set of possible answers, fixed by the researcher

40
Q

What are open questions

A

Questions that allow for an open/free response

41
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of closed questions

A

Advantages= - Easy to compare results
- Easy and quick to answer

Disadvantages= - Can force an answer the respondent may not want to give
- Can’t express an opinion

42
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of open questions

A

Advantages= - More detail
- Makes respondent feel like they’re receiving personal attention

Disadvantages= - Not practical for large groups

  • More time consuming
  • Can’t compare answers as easily
43
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires

A

Strengths= -Large amounts of data gathered quickly, therefore cost effective
- Researcher doesn’t have to be present, respondents may share more personal information

Weaknesses= -Response bias- respondents may favour a particular response
-Social desirability bias may still be possible (anonymity may help reduce likelihood of this)

44
Q

What’s a pilot study

A
  • An initial run through of the procedures to be used in an investigation

Involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. This can save time and money by identifying any flaws in procedures. E.g. confusion in participants or problems with the task

45
Q

Describe the correlation coefficients

A

0= No correlation

  1. 3 and below= weak correlation
  2. 31-0.69= moderate correlation
  3. 7 and above= strong correlation
46
Q

2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of correlations

A

Advantages= -Shows relationship between two variables so predictions can be made. E.g. ice cream sales go up on hot days
-No manipulation of variables so can study the relationship between two things ethically

Disadvantages= -Can’t measure cause and effect
-Extraneous variables play a role when interpreting the relationship

47
Q

What are the 6 main ethical issues in psychological research

A
  • Informed consent
  • Deception
  • Right to withdraw
  • Protection from psychological harm
  • Confidentiality
  • Privacy
48
Q

What should occur ethically before and after the experiment

A
  • A verbal brief before

- A verbal debrief after

49
Q

What’s a target population

A

All members of the group the researcher is interested in

50
Q

What’s the 5 main types of sampling

Not including time or event sampling

A
  • Random sampling
  • Systematic sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Volunteer sampling
  • Opportunity sampling
51
Q

What’s random sampling

1 adv
1 disadv

A
  • Every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected

Adv= For large samples it provides best chance of an unbiased representative sample

Disadv= For large populations it’s time consuming to create a large list of every individual

52
Q

What’s systematic sampling

1 adv
1 disadv

A
  • Every nth person is selected from the target population to be in the sample. E.g. every 3rd person

Adv= Avoids researcher bias in terms of selection of participants

Disadv= Runs Risk of being unrepresentative. E.g. every 3rd person may be all female, resulting in an all female sample

53
Q

What’s stratified sampling

1 adv
1 disadv

A
  • Selecting members in proportion that they occur in the population. E.g. 2.5% of British are of Indian origin, so 2.5% of the sample should be of Indian origin

Adv= Efforts been made to make sample representative

Disadv= Can be time consuming as subcategories have to be identified and proportions calculated

54
Q

What’s volunteer sampling

1 adv
1 disadv

A
  • Individuals who have chosen to be involved in the study

Adv= Relatively convenient and ethical if it leads to informed consent

Disadv= Unrepresentative as it leads to bias on the part of the participant. E.g. a daytime advert wouldn’t attract full-time workers

55
Q

What’s opportunity sampling

1 adv
1 disadv

A
  • Selecting people that are available at the time

Adv= Quick, convenient

Disadv= Very unrepresentative samples and often biased by the researcher who will likely choose people who look ‘helpful’

56
Q

What’s the difference between an aim and a hypothesis

A
  • Aim= An outline on what’s being studied and why a study is taking place. E.g.”to investigate the effect of caffeine on performance”
  • Hypothesis= A precise, testable prediction of the outcome of a study. E.g. “there will be a difference in reaction times of those that have consumed caffeine and a control”
57
Q

Describe an alternative hypothesis

A

Can be either directional or non-directional.

It states there will be an effect

58
Q

Describe a null hypothesis

A

States there will be no effect

“There will be no difference in people’s mood score depending on whether recorded on a sunny day or a rainy day”

59
Q

What does a directional hypothesis say

A

Directional hypothesis states the direction of difference between two conditions

60
Q

When are directional hypotheses used

A

When past research has been done in that field

61
Q

What does a non-directional hypothesis say

A

Non directional hypothesis states there will be a difference but doesn’t predict the direction

62
Q

When are non-directional hypotheses used

A

When there’s no past research done in that field

63
Q

What are the measures of central tendency

What are the measures of dispersion

A

Central tendency= Mean, median, mode

Dispersion= Range and standard deviation

64
Q

What’s quantitative data

What’s qualitative data

A

Quantitative= Numerical data

Qualitative= Non-Numerical data

65
Q

Adv and disadv of qualitative data

A

Adv= - More detailed

Disadv= - Subjective

  • Difficult to compare
  • Low In reliability
66
Q

Adv and disadv of quantitative data

A

Adv= - Objective

  • Easy to compare
  • High In reliability

Disadv= - Less detailed

67
Q

What’s primary data

A

Original data collected towards a research aim, which has not been published before

68
Q

What’s secondary data

A

Data originally collected towards another research aim, which has been published before

69
Q

What’s a meta-analysis

A

Combining findings of several research studies, of a certain research area into one larger study

70
Q

What’s standard deviation

A

The average amount all scores deviate from the mean

  • Difference from the mean, to each score
71
Q

Adv and disadv of standard deviation

A

Adv= -Not affected by anomalies
-Gives a more accurate idea of how data is distributed

Disadv= -Doesn’t give you the full range of the data
-Can be heard to calculate

72
Q

What’s the 3 levels of data

A
  • Nominal= categories
  • Ordinal= ranking
  • Interval= data on a scale

And ratio if it’s time (don’t know if learnt)

73
Q

Match what type of dispersion is used with what central central tendency

A
  • When using the mean use standard deviation
  • When using the median use range
  • When using the mode use range
74
Q

What’s a case study

A

A detailed investigation of one individual or a small group

75
Q

2 Adv and 2 disadv of a case study

A

Adv= - Rich in detail. As they provide great depth and understanding about individuals
- Useful for theory contradiction. Can help question evidence of a theory

Disadv= - Researcher bias. They may be biased in their interpretations or method of reporting
- Not representative. As no two case studies are alike, results cannot be generalised

76
Q

What’s a content analysis

A

A method of quantifying qualitative data through the use of coding units

77
Q

2 Adv and 2 disadv of content analysis

A

Adv= - Ease of application. Easy-to-perform, inexpensive research method, non-invasive, as it doesn’t require contact with participants
- Reliability. Easy to replicate

Disadv= - Descriptive. Purely descriptive therefore doesn’t reveal underlying reasons for behaviour
- Lack of causality. Not under controlled conditions therefore doesn’t show causality

78
Q

3 features of a normal distribution

A
  • Bell-shaped curve
  • People are located in the middle of the bell curve
  • Extreme scores are theoretically impossible
79
Q

What’s a positive skewed distribution

A

Where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph, resulting in a long tail of anomalous scores on the right

80
Q

What’s a negative skewed distribution

A

Where all the scores are concentrated on the right, resulting in a long tail of anomalous scores on the left

Psychology (16 decks)

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