Research Methods: Booklet 1 And Booklet 2 Flashcards
(201 cards)
1
Q
What is an aim?
A
A statement of the research
2
Q
What is a one-tailed hypothesis (directional)?
A
Also known as directional, as it specifies a direction example: boys will be better than girls in the strength test
3
Q
What is a two tailed hypothesis (non directional)?
A
Also known as non directional, doesn’t specify a direction, example: there will be a difference in strength between boys and girls
4
Q
What is a null hypothesis
A
States that a relationship between the two variables being studied will not be found, example: there will be no difference between boys and girls in a memory test
5
Q
What is the difference between a bar chart and a histogram?
A
Bar chart shows non-continuous data (e.g. blood group) and there are gaps between bars, whereas a histogram shows continuous data (e.g. temperature)
6
Q
What is correlational analysis?
A
A measure of correlation between two variables. A correlation coefficient can be used to measure how strong this correlation is.
7
Q
What are the advantages of correlational analysis?
A
Do not need a controlled experiment, can use sensitive data
8
Q
What are the disadvantages of correlational analysis?
A
Cannot establish cause and effect, coefficients can be due to chance
9
Q
What is a correlation coefficient?
A
A measure to show how strong a correlation is, between +1 and -1
10
Q
How would you draw a negative correlation
A
Draw from the top of the y axis to the bottom right of x axis ()
11
Q
How would you draw a positive correlation
A
Draw from the bottom left of x axis, top right of y axis (/)
12
Q
How do you show no correlation
A
Results are scattered, no line of best fit
13
Q
What is normal distribution?
A
Symmetrical about the mean. The mean median and mode are all the same
14
Q
What is a negative skew?
A
Where more scores are at the higher (right) side of the data. Tail to the left, mode is more than the median
15
Q
What is a positive skew?
A
More scores at the lower (left) side of the data. Tail is to the right. The mode is less than the median
16
Q
What is an independent variable
A
The variable you change/manipulate
17
Q
What is a dependent variable!
A
The variable that will be affected by changes in IV (the thing you are measuring in e.g. time)
18
Q
What is operationalisation?
A
Planning and describing the process in which the variables are measured, for example, to measure the effect of water vs red bull on memory performance, you would need to measure exactly how much of each you were using e.g. 500ml of both
19
Q
What is random allocation?
A
Everyone has an equal chance of being picked for either condition, e.g. computer generated or names in a bucket
20
Q
What is counterbalancing?
A
Where the order of tasks is mixed up. Helps with order effects in repeated measures design
21
Q
What is randomisation?
A
When materials are presented to the participants in random order to prevent order effects
22
Q
What is standardisation?
A
When a test is made uniform to adhere to a specific standard. Everything should be as similar as possible for the participants
23
Q
What are extraneous variables?
A
Variables other than the IV that can effect the DV, can be controlled by random sampling
24
Q
What are confounding variables?
A
A type of extraneous variable that can effect the IV and the DV
25
What does validity mean?
How accurate something is
26
What is external validity?
How generalised the results can be to others
27
What is internal validity?
Where the study measures what it claims to be
28
What is ecological validity?
How generalisable it is to real life settings
29
What is concurrent validity?
New results from a test can be compared to a previously well established test to see if they produce the same results
30
What is population validity?
Whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people
31
What is temporal validity?
Assesses to what degree research findings remain over time
32
What is face validity?
How much a test or study looks like it measures what it’s supposed to, just by looking at it on the surface level
33
What is reliability?
The overall consistency of a measure
34
What is internal reliability?
The extent to which a test is consistent within itself
35
What is external reliability?
Refers to the ability of the test to reproduce the same results each time it's carried out
36
What are ethical guidelines?
A set of guidelines to follow when designing studies to protect participants
37
What is informed consent?
A process in which patients are given information about the study they are participating in, including risks, and make an informed decision on giving consent
38
What is deception?
Deliberately misleading or keeping information from participants
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What is the right to withdraw?
Being able to leave when desired
40
What is confidentiality?
Where details are protected by keeping them private
41
What is protection from harm?
Where participants are protected by physical and mental harm
42
Why can a debreif be used as a method of dealing with all other issues?
It returns participants to the state they were in before the research
43
What is independent groups design?
Where one group takes part in condition A, the other condition B
44
What are the advantages of using independent groups design?
Fewer demand characteristics, no order effects
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What are the disadvantages of independent groups design?
More participants needed, participants have individual differences
46
What is repeated measures design?
All participants do both conditions to compare each condition
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What are the advantages of using repeated measures design?
Less participants needed, counteracts participant variables
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What are the disadvantages of using repeated measures design?
Order effects, demand characteristics
49
What is counterbalancing?
Participants are split in half. One group do one order, and the other do the other way round. This prevents order effects
50
What is matched pairs?
Where participants are matched based on important variables, e.g. age
51
What are the advantages of using matched pairs ?
No order effects, no participant variables
52
What are the disadvantages of using matched pairs?
Number of participants needed, also takes time to match pairs
53
What is a field experiment?
Experiments conducted outside of a laboratory. Behaviour is measured in a natural environment such as a school, a key variable is still altered so it’s effect can be measured
54
What are the advantages of using a field experiment?
Causal relationships, ecological validity
55
What are the disadvantages of using a field experiment?
Less control, possible ethical issues
56
What is a laboratory experiment?
Experiments conducted which control all relevant variables except from one key variable, which is altered to see the effect is has
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What are the advantages of using a laboratory experiment?
Highly controlled, replicable
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What are the disadvantages of using a laboratory experiment?
Lack of ecological validity due to artificial nature, demand characteristics
59
What is a confederate?
Someone who is involved in the research that try’s to influence the participants behaviour
60
What is an experimental group?
The participants are the experiment who the researcher is testing. E.g. receiving a drug
61
What is a control group?
The other condition where participants are taking part in the experiment, but no manipulation is used. For example, they may receive a saline solution instead of the drug that the experimental group received
62
What are demand characteristics?
Where participants may have determined the aims of the study and act deliberately to please the researcher (or opposite)
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How can demand characteristics be controlled?
Counterbalancing or randomisation
64
What does ‘double blind’ mean and why is it used?
Neither the participants or researcher know what condition the participants are in. Used to eliminate researcher bias and demand characteristics. Used in medical trials
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What does ‘single blind’ mean and why is it used?
The participants do not know which condition they are in. Used for the experiment and control groups to eliminate demand characteristics
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What is a natural experiment?
Where the researcher look at how the IV, which is not manipulated by the researcher, effects the DV. The IV is an event that occurs naturally, for example, single-sex schools and mixed schools
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What are the advantages of using a natural experiment?
Eliminates demand characteristics, ecological validity
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What are the disadvantages of using a natural experiment?
Possible ethical issues, extraneous variables
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What is a quasi experiment?
Where there is a natural occurring IV e.g. biological sex, so the researcher cannot use random allocation to allocate participants. Lab setting
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What are the advantages of using a quasi experiment?
Ecological validity, control
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What are the disadvantages of using a quasi experiment?
Lack of randomization, hard to establish cause and effect
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What are behavioural categories?
Where a set of component behaviours are devised
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What is event sampling?
Counting the number of times a certain behaviour is shown in a target individual(s)
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What is time sampling?
Recording all behaviours in a given time frame
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What is a controlled observation?
Where behaviours are observed in a lab, so the researchers can control conditions e.g. Bandura
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What are
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What are the advantages of using a controlled observation?
Control over extraneous variables, inter observer reliability, replication possible
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What are the disadvantages of using a controlled observation?
Lower ecological validity, demand characteristics
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What is a naturalistic observation?
Where observations take place in a natural environment. Can be structured in advance to make sure no behaviours are missed
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What are the advantages of using a naturalistic observation?
High ecological validity due to natural environment, fewer demand characteristics
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What are the disadvantages of using a naturalistic observation?
Harder to replicate, observer bias, uncontrolled extraneous variables
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What is a covert observation?
Where participants aren’t aware they are being observed
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What are the advantages of using a covert observation?
No demand characteristics, more likely to behave naturally
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What are the disadvantages of using a covert observation?
Ethical issues as the participants do not know they’re being observed
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What is an overt observation?
Where participants are aware they are being observed
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What are the advantages of using an overt observation?
Less ethical issues
87
What are the disadvantages of using a covert observation?
Demand characteristics
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What is a participant observation?
Where the observer acts as part of the group being observed, whilst also observing and collecting data
89
What are the advantages of using a participant observation?
Insiders perspective, reduced researcher bias
90
What are the disadvantages of using a participant observation?
Researcher loses objectivity by becoming part of the group, difficulty recording observations
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What is a non participant observation?
Where the experimenter is not part of the group being observed
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What are the advantages of using a non participant observation?
The researcher can reamain objective throughout the study
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What are the disadvantages of using a non participant observation?
Researcher loses a sense of the group dynamics by staying separate from the group
94
What is a structured observation?
Where the researcher determines precise behaviours to look for and uses a standardised checklist to record the frequency within a time frame
95
What are the advantages of using a structured observation?
Easier to gather relevant data
96
What are the disadvantages of using a structured observation?
Interesting behaviours could go unrecorded
97
What is an unstructured observation?
Where the observer records all relevant behaviour but has no system
98
What are the advantages of using an unstructured observation?
Interesting behaviours recorded
99
What are the disadvantages of using a structured observation?
Harder to gather relevant data
100
What is inter-rater reliability?
It’s a measure of how consistently different researchers or observers agree when assessing the same thing. Should be at least an 80% agreement
101
How can inter-rater reliability be improved?
By training data collectors and providing them with a guide for observing.
102
What is an interview self report method?
Uses to gather research, face to face or over phone
103
What are the advantages of using an interview self report method?
Rich data, qualitative data
104
What are the disadvantages of using an interview self report method?
Ethical issues, impractical
105
What is a structured interview?
Fixed set of questions that are all the same for participants
106
What are the advantages of using a structured interview?
Can be easily repeated, requires less interviewing skills, easier to analyse
107
What are the disadvantages of using a structured interview?
Interviewer bias can still occur, social desirability, data collection is restricted by pre-determined questions
108
What is an unstructured interview?
The interviewer starts with some general aims and questions and then let’s the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions
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What are the advantages of using an unstructured interview?
Detailed information can be obtained, high validity from building good rapport, deeper insight into thoughts and feelings
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What are the disadvantages of using an unstructured interview?
Interviewer bias, requires interviewer bias, harder to analyse
111
What are investigator effects?
These can be anything that the researcher does which can affect how the participant behaves. If a researcher’s expectations influence how they behave towards their participants, the participants might respond to demand characteristics
112
What is researcher bias?
The researchers’ expectations can influence how they design their study and how they behave towards the participants. Their expectations may influence how they take measurements and analyse their data, resulting in errors that can lead, to accepting a hypothesis that is actually false
113
How can you avoid researcher bias and investigator effects?
A research assistant can conduct the research using standardised procedures to avoid bias/ effects. A double blind procedure; where the researcher and participant do not know the conditions they are in
114
What is content analysis?
Research analysing secondary data and data you have already collected. Data is split into categories
115
Describe the process involved in content analysis
1) A representative sample of qualitative data is collected, for example, from an interview, magazine
2) Categories are identified to analyse the data. A category could be, for example, a negative comment in an interview
3) The qualitative data is then analysed to see how often each coding unit occurs, turning qualitative data in to quantitative data
116
How do you improve the reliability of content analysis?
Researchers should clarify operationalised categories and make new ones if necessary. They should be trained carefully to use their categories. They should analyse a small number of diary extracts using the same coding system. Inter rater reliability is used to compare for similarities between researchers and improve reliability. Should aim for an inter-rater reliability of (+0.8)
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What type of data would content analysis use?
Secondary data
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What are the advantages of using content analysis
Inexpensive, less ethical issues as participants not directly involved
119
What are the disadvantages of using content analysis?
Data analysis can be very time consuming, subjectivity of content analysis
120
What is thematic analysis?
Making summaries of data and identifying key themes and categories. The researcher becomes familiar with the data, then they start to look for different themes, review the themes, define and name the themes and then write a report
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What are the advantages of using thematic analysis?
Qualitative data preserves the detail in data. Creating hypotheses during the analysis allows for new insights to be developed
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What are the disadvantages of using thematic analysis?
Deciding which categories to use and whether a statement fits a particular category, deciding what to leave out of the summary (data can be lost), subjective
123
What is the main difference between thematic analysis and content analysis?
Thematic analysis explores underlying meanings and patterns within qualitative data, while content analysis quantifies and categorizes data based on predefined categories.
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What is the mean?
Where the scores in a data set are added and then divided by the number of scores
125
What are the advantages of using the mean?
Uses all scores in the data, takes into account the exact distance between all the values of all the data
126
What are the disadvantages of using the mean?
If there are anomalies, then the overall mean can be very distorted and misrepresent the data. It cannot be used with nominal data
127
What is the mode?
The most occurring score
128
What are the advantages of using the mode?
Shows the most common score, unaffected by extreme values and is useful for discrete data and is the only method which can be used for nominal data
129
What are the disadvantages of using the mode?
Sometimes there are multiples modes that the data cannot be described using this statistic. It also has little further use in data analysis
130
What is the median?
Middle score when data is in order
131
What are the advantages of using the median?
Quick and easy, not affected by extremely high/low scores (anomalies)
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What are the disadvantages of using the median?
Not all scores are used
133
What is the range?
Highest score subtracted by the lowest score
134
What are the advantages of using the range?
Easy and quick
135
What are the disadvantages of using the range?
Very low scores effect range, completely ignores central values
136
What is standard deviation?
Measures on average how much scores deviate from the mean
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What are the advantages of using standard deviation?
All scores in the set are considered, so it’s more accurate than the range
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What are the disadvantages of using standard deviation?
It’s not quick or easy to calculate
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What are the range and standard deviation examples of, and what are the mean mode and median examples of?
Range and standard deviation = measures of dispersion (how spread the numbers are). Mean mode and median = measures of central tendency (average)
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What is qualitative data?
Data involving words, videos or audio recordings
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What is quantitative data?
Numbers
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What is primary data?
Collected first hand by the researcher
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What is secondary data?
Collected from a source such as a book or newspaper (national statistics)
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What is a meta analysis?
Where results are analysed from many different studies to establish general conclusions
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What is a pilot study?
It’s a ‘feasbility’ study, a small scale preliminary study conducted before any large-scale quantitative research in order to evaluate the potential for a future, full scale project. They are essential to the research process and allow researchers to check the methodology, standardised the instructions and allow the research to be conducted
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What is a questionnaire self report method?
Can be written, face to face, on the phone or online. Uses open questions or closed questions.
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What is an open question?
Questions that allow the participants to respond in any way and in as much detail as they like. This gives detailed, qualitative information
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What are closed questions?
Questions that limit the answers that can be given. Easier to analyse than open questions
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What are the advantages of using a questionnaire self report method?
Practical, as you can collect a lot of data
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What are the disadvantages of using a questionnaire self report method?
Leading questions or unclear questions can be a problem, biased samples, self-report data lacks validity and is unreliable
151
What is social desirability?
Where participants try to show themselves in the best possible light. They might not give completely truthful answers but give answers that are more socially acceptable
152
Why does social desirability affect validity?
Not a true representation of someone’s opinions, thoughts, and feelings
153
What are case studies?
Case studies are intensive descriptions of a single individual or case. Case studies allow researchers to analyse unusual cases in a lot of detail
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What are the advantages of using case studies?
Rich data, unique cases
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What are the disadvantages of using case studies?
Cause and effect can be very hard to establish. Cannot be generalised (lacks population validity)
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What is a sample?
A representative group of people from a target population
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What is meant by a population?
All the people in a particular group, for example a certain age, or background
158
What is random sampling?
This is when every member of a target group has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This could be done either manually or by a computer
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What are the advantages of using random sampling?
Fair, as everyone has a a chance of being selected. Sample is likely to be representative
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What are the disadvantages of using random sampling?
Not guaranteed to have a representative sample. The researcher may end up with a biased sample because the sample is too small
161
What is volunteer sampling?
When people actively volunteer to be in a study by responding to a request for participants advertised by the researcher, e.g. from a newspaper advert
162
What are the advantages of using volunteer sampling?
A large number of people may respond. In depth analysis and accurate results if larger sample
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What are the disadvantages of using volunteer sampling?
Not representative, only sample of people who have responded
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What is opportunity sampling?
When the researcher samples whoever is available and willing to be studied. Since many researchers work in universities, they often use opportunity samples made of students
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What are the advantages of using opportunity sampling?
Quick and practical
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What are the disadvantages of using opportunity sampling?
Unlikely to be a representative sample, cannot generalise the findings
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What is stratified sampling?
Where different subgroups of the population are fairly represented. The percentage of the participants in the categories have to be representative of the percentage that are in the population.
168
What are the advantages of using stratified sampling?
Fairly representative sample
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What are the disadvantages of using stratified sampling?
Time consuming because all participants have to be assessed and categorised. Some groups within a sample may not be represented if a small sample is used
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What is systematic sampling?
Where every nth name from a sampling frame is taken, for example, like using every 2nd or 5th person on a list
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What are the advantages of using systematic sampling?
Simple and effective way of generating a sample with a randomisation element. Population is more likely to be evenly sampled
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What are the disadvantages of using systematic sampling?
Subgroups might be missed. Not necessarily representative if the pattern used for the sample coincides with a pattern in the population
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What is presumptive consent (an alternative way of gaining consent)?
Where a similar group of people is asked for consent
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What is prior general consent (an alternative way of gaining consent)?
Consent for different studies, including one that may involve deception
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What is retrospective consent (an alternative way of gaining consent)?
Asking for consent during a debrief
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What is nominal data?
Data represented in the form of categories. For example, how many students in the 6th form drive to school, how many walk etc. Nominal data is discrete, one item can only appear in one category
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What is ordinal data?
Data which is ordered in some way. For example, in a race, people are ranked with placements, but you do not know what the difference in time between 1st and 2nd are.
178
What is interval / ratio data?
Data which is based on numerical scales that include units of equal precisely defined size, e.g. time, temperature etc.
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What methods could be used to assess reliability?
Test retest, split half method (compare an individuals performance on two halves of a test)
180
How can you improve reliability?
Questionnaires: test-retest method- +.80
Low test-retest might require items to be deselected or rewritten.
Interviews: structured interviews are more reliable due to fixed nature
Observations: operationalising the behavioural categories
181
How can you improve validity?
Questionnaires: test- re-test method should be used. Should produce a correlation that exceeds +.80
Interviews: not to ask leading or ambiguous questions. Use a structured interview
Experiments: precise replication of a particular method.
Observations: categories are properly operationalised. Measurable and self-evident.
- Categories should not over-lap
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What is significance and probability in statistical tests?
All statistical tests employ a significance level. You can reject the null hypothesis and claim you have found a significant difference / correlation.
However, there is a 5% probability that the observed effect happened by chance
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What are the critical values and the calculated value in statistical tests?
Your calculated value has to be compared to the critical value. Each test has its own critical value table. Sometimes the critical value is equal to/ greater than. Sometimes is equal to/ less than
184
What is a type 1 error?
Is when the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, but it should be the other way round, In reality the null hypothesis is true. This is referred to as an optimistic error or false positive as the researcher claims to find significance that does not exist
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What is a type 2 error?
This is when the null hypothesis is accepted, but the alternative hypothesis should have been. Known as a pessimistic error or false negative
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What is the role of peer review?
This involves all aspects of the psychological research being scrutinised by a small group of two or three experts in a particular field. Peers should be objective and unknown to the researcher(s)
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What are the aims of peer review?
To allocate research funding.
To validate the quality and relevance of research.
The suggestion of amendments or improvements.
Quality and accuracy – the formulation of the hypotheses, methodology chosen, statistical tests.
Minor revisions and improvements- work is not appropriate and should be withdrawn.
Crucial for deciding who gets funding for new research projects from government organisations like the Medical Research Council
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Why should peer review by anonymous?
The peer should remain anonymous to maintain an honest appraisal. A minority of reviewers may use their anonymity to criticise rival researchers who have crossed them in the past. Direct competition for grants/ funding. Some journals make the names of the reviewers’ public
189
What is a publication bias?
There is a tendency for editors to publish significant ‘headline grabbing’ findings to increase credibility and circulation of their publication. Could create a false impression of the current state of psychology if editors are selective in what they publish. File drawer problem- especially in meta-analysis where non-significant or negative results are not published
190
Why are reviewers bias of other research?
Reviewers are especially critical of research that contradicts their own and are favourable to those that match theirs. Reviewers tend to be established scientists and are more likely to publish research that ‘fits’ with current opinions rather than new and innovative research that challenges.. This could in turn, slow down the rate of change
191
How can psychological research have implications for the economy?
It can influence, benefit, or devalue economic prosperity? Attachment research: multiple attachments in particular the father. Both parents are equally capable of providing the necessary emotional support for development. Can lead to flexible working arrangements within families
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How can the development of treatments for mental illnesses due to psychological research help with the economy?
Absences at work cost the economy an estimated £15 billion per year. A third caused by depression, anxiety and stress (The Telegraph, 2014). CBT/ SSRIs and antianxiety drugs have allowed people with mild mental health disorders to return to work and access medical treatment
193
How does research on sleep behaviour affect shift patterns at work?
Czeisler et al. (1982) studied workers at a factory whose shift patterns appeared to cause sleep and health problems. Recommended rotating shifts every 21 days and changing shifts forward in time. Previously employees had worked during the night for a week, late afternoons for the second week and mornings for the third week and returning to the night work. The changes indicated increased productivity and job satisfaction
194
What is an abstract?
This is a concise summary of the report- no more than 200 words that tells the researcher about the study. It should include a brief summary of the aims, hypotheses, method and results. Conclusions and limitations can also be included
195
What is a reference?
A reference section is needed include correct information about journals, books, articles and websites. It should be presented in alphabetical order with the first author’s surname E.G. for journal articles: Gupta, S. (1991). Effects of time of day and personality on intelligence test scores. Personality and
Individual Differences, 12 (11). 1227-1231
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What is an appendix?
Should include: Copies of the questionnaires used; Raw data; Statistical calculations; Ethical forms- consent/ debrief/ copy of instructions
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What is a procedure?
A step-by-step description of everything the researcher did in their study. Includes the design, sample, procedure (including how consent was obtained), instructions that were given to participants and how data was collected and recorded
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What should a psychological report include?
Title, abstract, introduction, procedure, results, conclusions/discussions, references, appendix/appendices
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How to remember statistical tests
NOI. Carrots should come mashed with sweed under roast potatoes.
Independent Repeated Correlation
Nominal: Chi squared, sign test, chi squared
Ordinal: Mann Whitney, wilcoxin, spearman’s rho
Interval: Unrelated t-test, related t-test, Pearson R
(Third point) Pearsons R and Spearman’s Rho use co-variables
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How to rememeber features of science
HF POTER
- Hypothesis testing
- Falsifiability
- Paradigm shifts
- Objectivity
- Theory construction
- Empirical method
- Replicability
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What are the features of a consent form?
APES. Aims of the study, procedure of the study, any ethical considerations, and the participants signature of consent
