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Research Methods Final Flashcards

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1
Q

What creates false positives

A

Incentives to publish - academics are rewarded for publishing which can motivate people to take shortcuts
Questionable research practices - slightly adjusting design, analysis, and reporting to produce p value above .05

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2
Q

Specific questionable practices

A

Measure the dependent variable in multiple ways
Gradually add more observations
Add and drop covariates
Add or drop experimental conditions
Combining these QRP’s gives you a 61% chance of getting p over 0.05 for an effect that isn’t real

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3
Q

File drawer problem

A

Studies showing null effects often wind up in a file drawer instead of in a journal
The published literature is thus heavily biased towards studies that “worked” (publication bias)

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4
Q

What can help false positives

A

Pre Registration: mitigates QRP’s: reporting exactly how you will conduct your experiment beforehand so you can be fact checked when you go to publish their results
Open materials and data: reader can see and test all dependent variables, test analyses with and without covariates, see and test all experimental conditions
Make unsuccessful studies searchable
Journals publishing null results: studies that answer important questions no matter the result are worth publishing

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5
Q

Credibility revolution

A

The movement has expanded to many other ways we can improve our research practices
Credibility is not just about statistical results

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6
Q

What is a construct

A

variables that cannot be observed directly

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7
Q

Defining variables

A

Conceptually vs operationally
Must conceptually define constructs
Must operationally define constructs
Every variable in study must be operationalized, must operationalize based on conceptual definition

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8
Q

Types of measurement

A

Self-report,
Behavioral: could be naturally occurring or lab induced
Physiological: assessment of bodily states (fmri, heart rate, pet)

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9
Q

How to choose which type of measurement to use

A

Previous research; how was this variable measured in previous studies
theory
methodological advances: new technology means new ways to measure
Feasibility: resource limitation like time and money may affect your choices

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10
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

same test given twice with some time in between, good for stable qualities like personality, not good for temporary states like mood

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11
Q

Parallel forms reliability

A

different forms of the same test used

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12
Q

Internal consistency

A

split half correlation ( top half questionnaire is compared to bottom half, Chronbach’s Alpha tests how items are intercorrelated

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13
Q

True score

A

the real score on the variable

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14
Q

Obtained

A

the score measures give

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15
Q

Measurement error

A

difference between true score and obtained score

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16
Q

Face validity

A

does measurement look like it measures the thing it’s meant to measure?

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17
Q

Survey research

A

uses self report
Tries to obtain generalizable samples - ideally random and large

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18
Q

Interviews

A

Structured or unstructured
Costly
Interviewer bias
Social desirability concerns

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19
Q

Phone surveys

A

Structured or unstructured
Used to be easy to get random samples, now no one picks up their phone
Cheaper
Less social desirability

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20
Q

Questionnaires

A

Paper or electronic
Cheapest
Fewest social desirability concerns

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21
Q

Survey advantages

A

Can access non-observable variables as well as variables you cannot ethically or practically manipulate
Demographic info
Attitudes and benefits
Past behaviour
Current behaviour that cannot be observed
Motivation and emotion
Personality traits
Easy to administer
Quick and easy way to gather lots of information that requires few resources

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22
Q

Survey disadvantages

A

Accuracy may be low
Participants may lack insight
May forget previous behaviour
May respond in socially desirable way
Not manipulating IV, thus cannot demonstrate causation
True of all correlation / non experimental research

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23
Q

Good survey

A

BRUSO
Is brief - avoid long sentences and jargon
Relevant - avoid temptation to include extra items that stray from question - avoid personal/ nosy questions
Unambiguous - don’t be vague or use negative wording
Specific - avoid questions with multiple ideas packed in
Objective - questions shouldn’t have emotionally charged words

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24
Q

The hidden curriculum

A

norms and opportunities within academic culture that are rarely explicitly taught

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25
Employers want
communication skills, clear and precise writing, persuasive speaker, careful listener Strong work ethic: high ethical standards, effective time management Sense of initiative: persistence in face of challenges, can plan and carry out projects Team work skills Interpersonal skills: deals with a wide variety of people, good at handling conflict
26
Strategies for academic success
Reading for comprehension: read in distraction free setting Take notes that summarize reading Look up unknown terms Studying effectively: Connect the concepts to each other and to things you care about Organized ideas are easier to remember then a list of unrelated facts Familiarity is not knowledge; test yourself, flashcards good Spaced practice is better than cramming Time management: Break large tasks into small ones Block more time then needed for each deadline Be aware of planning fallacy Figure out best time of day for you a d plan most difficult tasks for that time Install a website blocker Caring for yourself: University is demanding job Set aside and protect the time when youre not working - guilt free When you’re tired, take a break
27
Building and academic network
Office hours - You can just go to office hours to chat with prof Class discussions - Voice your opinions in class discussions, Listen to classmates - build on others points Attending departmental events Joining research labs Attending conferences
28
Joining a research lab
email profs whose research interests you, independent study, apply to work in labs as work/study student Emailing prof about ab involvement: use proper salutation, express interest, give availability (which sem) attach resume and grade report Research assistant: 6-12 hours per week of research based tasks, responsibility and independence increases over time, regular lab/ team meetings
29
Advantages of academic network
Opportunities: scholarships, internships Advocacy: reference letters Mentoring and support
30
Getting reference letters
pick profs who know you well, make it easy for them, ask if they’d be willing, give package of all relevant info
31
Personal statement
: academic, professional, word doc that communicates as forcefully as possible why you’re a good fit for the program of your choice, goal is to sell yourself to grad program Statement should explain: What you want to study at this program Why you want to study it What relevant experience you have What you plan to do with your degree once you have it Show strengths by tying in experiences and accomplishments that demonstrate them Use active voice and dynamic sentences, don't be boring but don't be too theatrical Tailor each statement
32
Measurement
assignment of scores to individuals so that scores represent some characteristic
33
Psychometrics
measurement in psych
34
Constructs
ideas that cannot easily or accurately be assessed (traits, emotional states, attitudes)
35
Operational definition
definition of variable about how it will be measured, multiple for any given construct
36
Converging operations
psychologists use multiple different definitions of same construct - within or accoress studies
37
Nominal level of measurement
measurement used for categorical variables and involves assigning scores that are category labels
38
Ordinal measurement
ranking and ordering of qualitative data (very satisfied to very dissatisfied) - cannot assume variance
39
Interval level of measurement
assigning score using numerical scales where intervals have the same interpretation through (temperature scale, IQ) - can never be 0
40
Ratio level of measurement
assigning scores where there is true zero point(# of siblings, score on exam, how much money you have rn)
41
Cronbach’s a:
a is mean of all possible split half correlations for set of items, best test for internal reliability Sensitive to # of items in scale Higher then .90 = excellent .90-.80 - good .70-.60 - questionable Lover then .60 - poor
42
Validity
extent to which scores from measurement represent the variable they are intended to
43
Content validity
extent to which measure covers construct of interest
44
Criterion validity
people's scores on a measure are correlated with other criteria that one would expect them to be correlated with (test anxiety should be negatively correlated with performance on exam, if this is found it would be evidence that scores truly represent people anxiety) Predictive validity: does it predict expected outcomes Criterion can be any variable that should be correlated with the construct being measured - usually lots of them
45
Convergent validity
measures how well constructs that are theoretically related correlate (test measuring extraversion should be correlated with test measuring self-esteem)
46
Discriminant validity
Measure should NOT correlated with theoretically different variables. Ex. Loneliness and security - if scores are not correlated, test has high discriminant validity Divergent validity - same thing Of measure doesn’t have discriminatory validity it is too broad
47
Demanded characteristics
subtle cues that reveal how researcher expects participants to behave
48
APA style
Genre of writing appropriate for presenting results of psychological research Title page, abstract, intro, method, results, discussion, references
49
High level style APA
formal; adopts tone appropriate for communicating with professional colleagues, straightforward; communicates ideas as simply and clearly as possible. Avoids language biased against certain groups - to avoid offense and scientific objectivity and accuracy
50
Reliability
consistency of measure
51
Abstract
summary of study - 200 words Introduction: introduces research question and explains why it’s interesting, lit review discusses relevant previous research and closing restates research question and methods used to answer it Opening; 1-2 paragraphs, introduces research question, its importance or interest Lit review: describes relevant previous research Closing: final paragraph of intro, clear statement of question and hypothesis, brief overview of method
52
Method section of paper
describe how you conducted your study - clear and detailed enough so someone could replicate it exactly
53
Discussion
summary of research, theoretical implications, practical implications, limitations, suggestions for future research
54
Appendix
tables figures, supplementary material, stimulus words, questionnaire items
55
Review and theoretical articles
Review articles summarize research on topic without presenting new results Theoretical articles are when these articles present new theory based on past research
56
Final manuscripts
published not in journal, dissertations, theses, other student papers, easier to read
57
Other way to share research that isn’t papers
Professional conferences, Oral presentations, poster, image description
58
Survey research
Qualitative and quantitative method using self-reports with careful attention payed to sampling
59
Context effects
effects not related to content of item but to context in which item appears
60
Item-order effects
order items presented in affects response
61
Open bs closed ended items
Open-ended items: ask a question and allow interpretation/ any response Close ended items: provide set of options
62
Rating scale
ordered set of responses, ex. Frequency: never, rarely, sometimes, often, always
63
Probability sampling
researcher can specify the prob that each member of pop will be selected for sample
64
Non probability sampling
Convenience, snowball sampling, quota sampling, and self selection sampling
65
Sampling frame
list of all members of pop that can be selected for sample
66
Proportionate stratified random sample
to select random sample with equal amount from each strata
67
Disproportionate stratified random sample
can be used to sample extra respondents from small subgroups
68
Cluster sampling
larger clusters of individuals are randomly sampled and then individuals within each cluster are sampled ex. Select several small towns and then select several residents of each small town
69
Nonsense measures
Convergent validity and reliable
70
Graph formatting
Title - summarizes graph, explains what c and y represent axis labels - x(horizontal) y(vertical) what do they represent? Includes units of measurement legend - key to data plotted - what do colours represent footnotes - further explain data and source Appropriate representation of axes, scale, and error Clutter-free visual
71
Indicating range of error
Only necessary when reporting from samples or where there is uncertainty 95% confidence = range of values where we are 95% sure true population value lies Represented by error bars - if they do not overlap, there is significance
72
Visual style of graphs
Reduce clutter Highlight what is important Data ink: numbers and vital points representing data Colours and patterns: can be useful but should not be overused and distracting Dimension: should be 2d
73
Types of bar graphs
Bar graphs - categorical data Vertical bar graphs - comparing estimates Horizontal bar graphs - combined of above Cluster bar graphs - two or more cathodes 100% stacked column graphs - compare percentages when total is 100% across categories - no more then 3 components
74
Other graphs (line,histo,scatter,box,pie, time)
Line graphs - illustrate trends/ different variables overtime - x-axis usually discrete, y usually continuous Histogram: each bar represents range of data - categorical, can show normalcy, binning matters Scatterplot: shows relationship between two variables, all data represented in dot - work best for continuous variables Box plot - shows range, outliers quartiles Pie - show percentages or parts of a whole Time series graph - shows change over time x= discrete time, y= variable (price)
75
Categorical data
Each value represents discrete category - order does not matter
76
Numerical data
Each value represents either a real number (age) or a place on continuum (rating scale) - order matters
77
Importance of y axis
Must start at baseline so difference isn’t exaggerated Too broad range may minimize differences Can’t be upside down Can only be 1

Research Methods (2 decks)

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