Research Methods (paper 2) Flashcards

Question

What is a natural experiment?

Answer 1

-an experiment where the change to the IV would have occurred without reacher, its not done by reseacher -researcher records effect on DV -has the lowest control of IV, but has the highest level of ecological validity -low internal but mid external validity -low ethics issues -low reliability but low demand characteristics

Answer 2

-a study that is almost an experiment but the IV is not detirmined by anyone -the variables simply exist (eg being old or young) -the environment of the study is controlled -mid internal but low external validity -low ethics issues -high reliability but high demand characteristics

Answer 3

-high, indicates the findings can be generalised and applies to real life -so people in real life situations will experience the same things as in the study

Answer 4

-random -systematic -stratified -opportunity -volunteer (or self selection)

Answer 5

-Each member of a population has equal chance of being selected (lottery method used to select from obtained list of target population) +free from researcher bias -time consuming -difficult to get list of everyone -could be unrepresentative (chance) -people may not want to take part

Answer 6

-when every nth member of target population is selected from sampling frame +free from researcher bias +fairly representative (usually) -time consuming -list of everyone is difficult to get -people may not want to take part

Answer 7

-The composition of sample reflects the proportion of people in certain sub groups within the target population +free from researcher bias +most representative -time consuming -complete representation of sample is not always possible -people may not want to take part

Answer 8

-selecting anyone who is willing/available to take part, researcher simply asks whoever is around +saves money (time) +quick and efficient -unrepresentative (only people there and only some will say yes) -researcher bias

Answer 9

-an advert is produced, individuals self select themselves to take part +easy +less time consuming -volunteer bias occurs -usually less representative

Answer 10

-*informed consent*: the right to be given detailed information about the nature/purpose of the research and their role in it, so they can make the informed decision to take part or not -*right to withdraw*: the right to leave the study for any reason and should also be able to refuse permission for the data they produced to be used -*confidentiality*: the right to have personal information protected (inc right for anonymity) -protection from harm: during study, participant should not experience any negative physical/psychological effects -*deception*: deliberately misleading/withholding info from participants at any stage in the study (so informed consent cannot truly be given)

Answer 11

-ethic committees weight up the cost vs the benefits of research proposals to decide if the study should go ahead -benefits may include the value of the research -possible costs may inc the damaging effects on individuals or in the reputation of psychology as a whole

Answer 12

-need to give participant detailed letter with all relevant info that may affect decision to join study, that will be signed if they agree -Presumptive consent: rather than consent from participant, a similar group of people are asked if study is acceptable, they agree than participant consent is presumed -Prior general consent: participants give permission to take part in multiple different studies (inc one that involves deception), so they are agreeing to being deceived -Retrospective consent: during debrief after study participants are asked for consent

Answer 13

-if they were deceived, participants should be informed of all details and the true intentions of the study after, as well as what their data will be used for so they can decide if it will be used -maintain anonymity and remind participants they can withdraw their data

Answer 14

-study of *observable behaviour* -non experimental method as there is *no independent variable * (cannot establish cause and effect) -can be *used within experiments*

Answer 15

Naturalistic- watching behaviour in the setting it would normally occur + high external validity + low demand characteristics - low reliability (difficult to replicate due to lack of control) - low internal validity (extraneous variables may effect DV) Controlled- watching behaviour in a structured environment + high internal validity + high reliability (easily repeatable) - high demand characteristics - low external validity (not applicable)

Answer 16

Covert- behaviour is watched without knowledge or consent of participants + high internal validity (will act natural) + low demand characteristics - high ethical issues (no informed consent and cant withdraw) Overt- behaviour is watched with knowledge and consent + low ethical issues - high demand characteristics - low internal validity (act less natural)

Answer 17

Participant- researcher is member of group whose behaviour they’re watching + high internal validity (more insight) - low objectivity Non participant- researcher remains outside group whose behaviour they’re watching + high objectivity - low internal validity (loose insight)

Answer 18

Structured -used when there is *too much going* for researcher to record it all -produces *quantitive* data (analysis is more straightforward) Unstructured -researcher *writes down everything they see* -used on *small scale* when their is *few participants* -produces *qualitative* data, so it is difficult to analyse but more in depth -*prone to bias* as researcher may miss of purposely ignore things Observer bias = expectations impact what they see and hear, this reduces validity of observations

Answer 19

-the *target behaviour* must be *clearly defined* before an observation -they use a *predetermined list of behaviours* to quantify their observations put into a checklist -researcher should *include all realistic ways target behaviour may occur* -they make *data collection more structured and objective* -the categories *must be clear and unambiguous* so *no interpretation required* (as it may differ for people) -no overlap of categories to avoid confusion of where behaviour belongs

Answer 20

Event sampling -researcher *records every time event*/target behaviour occurs (using a *tally chart*) -used when *event occurs infrequently* Time sampling -used when *lots of people are observed* -researcher *records behaviour in a fixed time frame* (eg every 10mins) -important *behaviours may be missed* if they don’t occur at interval

Answer 21

The *agreement between multiple observers* involved in the observation of a behaviour -it should make data objective/unbiased -should be 2 or more observers -before observation, should *ensure they interpret behavioural categories the same* -*pilot test of categories*so they can practice using them and see if the categories need to be changed -whilst doing observations, *they are separate* -after observation, their *observations are correlated to check for reliability* -if *positive correlation of 80+* the observations are deemed *reliable*

Answer 22

Any method when a person is asked to or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic There are two types: -questionnaires -interviews

Answer 23

Open= no fixed choice of response, people can answer how they wish (qualitative data) Closed= fixed choice of response, determined by question setter (quantitative data) Open -responses are more detailed/in depth -difficult to collate/summarise data -conclusions may be open to bias Closed -often involves ticking boxes/circling -responses are easier to compare -respondents cannot explain answers

Answer 24

-use of jargon (technical language) may make questions difficult to understand and answer -emotive language demonstrate authors stance in particular topic and may influence respondent -leading questions also guide respondent to a particular answer -double barrelled questions have two questions in one, the respondent may only agree with one if the questions and not the other -double negatives may make questions confusing to understand

Answer 25

The accuracy of a study

Answer 26

A measure of how test performance predicts behaviors in real-world settings, can findings be generalised to other settings

Answer 27

a type of external validity that refers to the validity of the findings in relation to the progression of time

Answer 28

Where the performance on one meadow correlates highly with the performance on another measure of the same variable

Answer 29

How *consistent* a method is within itself •*split half method* -compare half the questions to other half, checks for same level of difficulty •*inter observer reliability* -compare observations of each observer, checks that they are interpreting behaviour the same way

Answer 30

How consistent the method is over time •*test retest method* -if the same questionnaire/interview is conducted again, the same results should be obtained each time •*replication* -an experiment should obtain the same results when repeated with the same standardised procedures used

Answer 31

questionnaires -some items must be rewritten or deselected Interviews -same interviewer used each time -properly train interviewer -structured interviews Observations -operationalised behavioural categories -categories are measurable and self evident with no overlap -trained observers -beforehand agreement in categories

Answer 32

-an *in depth investigation* -often involve *anlysis of unusual individuals or events* -mostly *qualitative data* -researchers use *many research methods* -tend to be *longitudinal*

Answer 33

Strength -offer *detailed insights on atypical forms if behaviour* so we have more understanding about human behaviour that otherwise cannot be investigated (due manipulation ethics) -they can *generate hypothesises for future study* which may lead to development in n theories Limits -tend to *involve single individuals* so what may be true first this person may not be the case for everyone -*researchers may become to involved* which reduces validity, case studies take place over long periods of time which may lead to the researcher getting to know the family/person well leading to *subjective selection* and interpretation of info

Answer 34

-*Observational study*, behaviour is indirectly studied by *examining the communications* that people produce (inc, spoken interaction, written form, or media) -May involve quantitative and/or qualitative analysis -aim is to *summarise and describe data* in a systematic way so *overall conclusions* can be drawn -*deductive (top down) approach*. researchers already inc What they are looking for and have created categories to reglect this -*tally may be created* for how many times each category is used in the data -*themes will emerge* once the data has been analysed

Answer 35

-*stage of content analysis* -communication is *analysed by* identifying each instance of the *chosen categories*

Answer 36

-involves *identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data*. -*data then is organised* according to these *themes* -data is *transcribed where necessary* -data is then *reviewed repeatedly* so that the researcher may *identify trends* -themes identified are re analysed so that they beceme more refined -themes Identified can be used to *support or challenge existing themes*

Answer 37

-*qualitative* (expressed in words, feelings or opinions. Concerned with interpretation of language) -*quantitive* (expressed numerically, data is open to being analysed statistically and converted to graphs) -*primary* (gathered firsthand,specifically for research investigation. May be referred to as ‘field research’.) -*secondary* (data already exists, collected by someone else. May be referred to as ‘desk research’)

Answer 38

Pris -offers the researcher more *richness of detail* -*broader in scope* and gives participants the opportunity to develop their thoughts, feelings and opinions. -tends to have *greater external validity* Cons -often *difficult to analyse* patterns and trends within and between data are hard to find. -*conclusions maybe subjective* -*reduces the validity and the reliability* of the data collected

Answer 39

Pros -relatively *simple to analyse* Patterns and trends within and between data are more obvious. -*conclusions are more objective*. -*increased the validity and the reliability* of the data collected. Cons -*narrower in scope* and meaning, does not give the participants the opportunity to develop their responses. -tends to have *lower external validity*

Answer 40

Pros -*collected for a specific purpose*, (Questionnaires and interviews can be designed to *specifically target information researcher requires*) *increasing the internal validity* of the study. -*authenticity of the data can be checked during collection*, Researchers able to see if the data collected is genuine, (which they are unable to do with secondary data) *increasing the internal validity* of the data collected -*data collected is current*, collecting the data first hand, it reflects the current time period, *increases the external validity* of the research -*quality of the methods* used to collect the data *can be checked*, researcher is aware of procedure used(so it can be repeated) and knows data collected is genuine and not “massaged”, *increases both the validity and the reliability* of the findings Cons -Producing it *requires time and effort*, researcher has to *plan, prepare and resource the study*

Answer 41

Pros -*requires little time and effort*, Takes no planing/resourcing/prep etc. Cons -*not collected for a specific purpose* The study not been designed to specifically target the information researcher requires, *decreases the internal validity* of the study. -*authenticity of the data cannot be checked during collection* Researchers not able to see if data collected is genuine, *decreases the internal validity* of the data collected. -*data collected may be outdated*, researchers are not collecting data first hand, it may not reflect the current time period, *decreases the external validity* of the research. -*quality of the methods* used to collect the data *cannot be checked*. researcher is not aware of actual procedure, so it cannot be repeated and they don’t know if data collected is genuine and has not be “massaged”. -*decreases both the validity and the reliability* of the findings

Answer 42

-uses *secondary data* from a large number if studies -researchers *may discuss their findings and conclusions*, (known as qualitative analysis) -researchers *may use quantitative approach*and *statistically analyse the combined data* (involves calculating on effect size)

Answer 43

Pros -*validity of data is known* so we can view it with more confidence -*data can be generalised to larger populations*, as multiple pieces of research is used so sample size is increased Cons -*prone to publication bias*, researcher may have not used all relevant studies, (leaving out ones with negative or. insignificant results) *data is biased* and has incorrect conclusions drawn

Answer 44

The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data Including: .Measures of central tendency - mean, median, mode .measures of dispersion - range and Standard deviation

Answer 45

**mean** + representative as it includes all values - easily distorted by extreme values **median** + easy to calculate + not affected by extreme values - less sensitive that mean as lower and higher values are ignored **mode** + easy to calculate +can be used with nominal data (categories) - there can be more that one mode - not representative

Answer 46

The smaller the standard deviation the tighter the dispersion within a data set, this means people are impacted similarly by an IV in the experiment. (Dissimilar for greater SD)

Answer 47

**range** + easy to calculate - only takes two most extreme values into account **standard deviation** + more precise measure of dispersion - easily distorted by extreme values

Answer 48

-*categories* are placed on *x-axis* -*frequency of the categories* is placed on *y axis* -*space between the categories* on the x axis -key is used if there’s more than one set of data for each category -used for data from *categories* -categorical data means that it is *discrete (independent)* and *not related* so they should not touch

Answer 49

-*different “categories” are NOT separated* because they are related They continue on e.g. height, weight, test scores -bars of *unequal width* – this tells us the frequency. I.e. in a histogram, it’s about the area, not its height. -*frequency/frequency density* on the *y axis* -*continuous data* on the *x axis* -used when *data is related* Frequency Frequency density = —————— Width

Answer 50

-*uses continuous data* . -*frequency* on the *y axis* -*continuous data* on the *x axis* -*dots are joined* up by a line -allow *more than one set of continuous data to be shown* at one time.

Answer 51

-for each individual two scores are obtained, one dot is plotted -*One dot = one participant* -*does not matter* if the co-variables go on the *x or y axis* -the *dots are not joined up* But *may have a line of best fit* -The *closer points are to line of best fit*, the *stronger correlation* -*show associations or relationships between co-variables* (Co-variables: not causally linked as the variables may or may not be related in some way)

Answer 52

Mean Median Mode

Answer 53

Range Standard deviation

Answer 54

-*normal * distribution is a *bell curve*, symetrical -most scores fall on/around the mean -mean/mode/median should all fall on the same point -the *larger standard deviation*, the *greater the spread of data* from the mean *Skewed distribution*-data spread around the mean is not symmetrical (*mean is no longer in the middle*) Occurs *when theres extreme results*

Answer 55

-*distribution* is concentrated *to the left* -more *low scores* in data

Answer 56

-*distribution* concentrated *to the right* -more *high scores* in data

Answer 57

-*mode* is the highest *point* -*mean*is pulled *towards extreme score* -*median* sits in the *middle of mode/mean*

Answer 58

-a *mathematical technique* in which the *association between two variables* is investigated (co-variables)

Answer 59

Positive- one co-variable increases so does the other Negative- one co-variable increases the other decreases Zero- no association between co-variables

Answer 60

-shows *how closely the variables are* and what *type of correlation it is* -between -1 and +1 Numbers represent *strength/direction* of *co-variables relationship* -*closer to 0, weaker relationship*

Answer 61

Strengths -useful as *preliminary research* technique, *allows a link to be identified* and further investigated -relatively *quick and cost effective* to carry out (*secondary data* used) Weaknesses -can be *misused or misinterpreted* -*lack of experimental manipulation* and control so studies can inly tell if variables are linked, *not establish cause and effect* -another untested variable may be causing relationship between two co-variables

Answer 62

*Small scale* version of an investigation that *takes place before real investigation* is conducted

Answer 63

-check procedures, materials, measurement scales etc -allows researchers to her to change their studies if issues occur -findings in terms of data are irrelevant (as its about the method)

Answer 64

+saves time and money +opportunity to practice method/procedure +can correct mistakes in method +increases validity of research -could lead to investigation bias (researcher changing method to gain desired results) -may take more time/money -waste if time/money if no changes are required -needs new participants for final study which may be difficult to get

Answer 65

-researchers *don’t tell participants* if they are given a test treatment or a control experiment -used to *ensure particpants don’t bias the result* by acting in a certain way, helps *avoid effects of demand characteristics*

Answer 66

-*neither participants nor conductor know* of the studies aims -third party (not the researcher) conducts the experiment -used to *prevent investigator effects* as *researcher is not able to unconsciously influence participants or give cues* to the condition they are in (often used in drug trial)

Answer 67

1- *researcher submits an article to a journal* of their choice (may be determined by audience/prestige) 2- journal selects *two or more appropriate experts* (psychologists working in a similar field) to *anonymously* peer review the article *without payment*. peer reviewers *assess*: the *methods/designs* used, *originality* of findings, the *validity* of original research findings, its *content, structure and language* 3- *Feedback* from the reviewer *determines if article is accepted*. article *may be: Accepted as it is, accepted with revisions, sent back for author to revise and re-submit or rejected without the possibility of submission* 4- *editor makes the final decision* whether to *accept or reject* the research report *based on the reviewers comments/ recommendations*

Answer 68

-To *allocate research funding*: research bodies and the government only fund worthwhile projects. -To *validate quality and relevance of the research*: all elements of the research are assessed for quality/accuracy, to prevent dissemination of irrelevant findings, deliberate fraud and unwarranted claims -To *suggest amendment or improvements*: ensures the research is taken seriously, and helps identify errors or weaknesses. This is because authors/researchers are less objective about their own work.

Answer 69

Strengths -can *establish the validity and accuracy of research* (prevents the dissemination of incorrect work) -usually *anonymous*, produces a more honest appraisal of the work Limitations -often *publication bias in journals* (Editors want to publish significant findings to increase credibility/circulation of their publication, so more likely to publish positive results. Other research ignored, creating false impression of state of psychology) -*slow process* which slows publication down -reviewers might use it to *prevent competing researchers from publishing work*/use anonymity to *criticise rival researchers* (likely as many researchers are in direct competition for limited funding) -may *suppress opposition to mainstream theories*. (Reviewers established in their field, usually critical of research that contradicts their view. findings that fit with current opinion more likely to be passed than new/innovative research challenging the status quo. This may slow rate of change in psychology)

Answer 70

-the idea that *research with significant findings/positive results is more likely to be published* than research with insignificant or negative results

Answer 71

-The internet means that a lot of research and academic comment is being published without official peer reviews than before. -Systems are evolving on the internet where everyone really has a chance to offer their opinions and police the quality of research.

Answer 72

-idea that *scientific statements* are *can be proven wrong* -*Science aims to falsify the hypotheses* it forms not verify, to be a science psychology must do this -(Popper emphasised the idea that nothing can be proved aka ‘All swans are white’ - you can find lots of swans that are white, cannot be proved because you can never find or see all swans)

Answer 73

-*extent* to which a test or measurement can *produce consistent results*

Answer 74

-A *set of shared assumptions and agreed methods* within a scientific discipline. -Kuhn argued against Popper's idea of science explained through induction/deduction. He felt people collected data that fitted with accepted assumptions of science, thus creating a bias within research. -*Psychology*, argued to be *pre-scientific* as there are *too many differences within each area*, no universally accepted paradigm (so its pre-paradigmatic)

Answer 75

-*result of a scientific revolution*: a *significant change in the dominant unifying theory* within a scientific discipline. -Kuhn argued there’s *two phases* in science that revolved around paradigm shifts. -Phase 1 = normal science. (One theory is dominant, Evidence against the dominant theory gathers, original theory is falsified/overthrown) -Phase 2 = revolutionary shift. (A new theory becomes dominant)

Answer 76

-*extent* to which *results accurately measure what they are supposed to* measure.

Answer 77

-Being *uninfluenced* by personal opinions or past experiences, *being free from bias* -Involves *keeping a critical distance* and making observations without bias. -To *lessen the bias of researchers* we have: (Standardised instructions/Operationalised variables/Physically defined measurements/Double blind procedures) -*Peer review* can also be used to *assess the objectivity* of researchers' work.

Answer 78

-Being *influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions*

Answer 79

-The *establishment of the correctness* of a theory *or fact*

Answer 80

-*collection of general principles* used to *explain specific observations and facts*

Answer 81

-Being *able to repeat a study* to *check the validity and reliability* of the findings. -Involves *repeating research* to check to validity. -This *can only happen* if the *research has been carefully written up* so that *someone else can repeat it exactly*

Answer 82

-A *means of acquiring knowledge* based on *observable and measurable evidence*

Answer 83

-extremely *thorough and careful* so to *strictly apply or adhere to a system*

Answer 84

-*Relying on or derived* from *observation or experiment* -*Science* is about *acquiring knowledge* -This knowledge is acquired through empirical methods - they are derived from observation and experiments where the results can be seen. -A *theory can only claim to be scientific* if it can be *rigorously/empirically tested* and verified.

Answer 85

-process where the *scientists performing the research influences the results*, in order to portray a certain outcome.

Answer 86

-*clear, precise, testable statement* that *states the relationship between the variables* to be investigated.

Answer 87

-the *first stage of the scientific process* -Theories are *used to generate hypotheses* *Observation of phenomena* are the *first stage in theory construction*- we can only have ideas about the world based on what we see. -*Theories are adjusted following testing of hypotheses* based on whether they have been falsified (proven wrong) or verified (proven

Answer 88

-*observation leads* to the creation of a *theory* -*From this* theory a *hypothesis is created* -The *hypothesis is tested empirically* -*Conclusions* are drawn *from study* -This *may lead to new* questions and new *hypotheses* being created -New hypothesis are *then tested* -The *theory* may then be *refined*

Answer 89

-*observation* leads to a *hypothesis* being created. -The *hypothesis is tested empirically* -*Conclusions* are drawn from *study* -This *may lead to new* questions and new *hypotheses* being created -New hypothesis are *then tested* -*Eventually the data is used* to *construct a theory*

Research Methods (paper 2) Flashcards

(113 cards)