Research Methods pt 2

Question 1

Chapter 5

Question 2

Self-report Measure

Answer 2

Reporting a person’s answer to a question you measured
How much caffeine have you consumed? How many caffeinated beverages have you had in the last week?
Ask parents or teachers for child self-report
Risk of biases; exaggerated results; self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 3

Observational Measure

Answer 3

Behavioral measure
Operationalizing a behavior by recording observable behaviors
Classroom engagement
Conceptual variable
How many times did you see a child raising their hand?
Or observing a child in a school (natural setting)
How often does someone sneeze?
BIAS: people may act different when being observed

Question 4

Physiological measure

Answer 4

Operationalizing a variable by recording biological data
How much cortisol is released in a saliva?

Question 5

Categorical Variable

Answer 5

Nominal variable
Levels are qualitatively distinct categories
Assign numbers to variables; have no meaning; just to categories

Question 6

Quantitative Variables

Answer 6

Coated with meaningful numbers
Height weight scale of someone’s wellbeing

Question 7

Ordinal Scale

Answer 7

Ranking something in order
Only but so much
ex: socio economic status (“low income”,”middle income”,”high income”), education level (“high school”,”BS”,”MS”,”

Question 8

Interval scale

Answer 8

Equal distances between numbers; between levels
0 does not have a value, not true 0, TEMP, pH, SAT score, credit score

Question 9

Ratio Scale

Answer 9

Equal intervals and true zero: miles per hour, unemployment rate, time to repurchase , numbers of errors

Question 10

Test-retest reliability

Answer 10

Consistent scores everytime you measure something
IQ test beginning of a semester, at end
Score should be relatively consistent

Question 11

Interrater reliability

Answer 11

Having consistent scores no matter who is taking the measurement
Everybody that observes how often the child is smiling should have the same amount

Question 12

Internal reliability

Answer 12

Going to provide consistent pattern of responses
Ask how lonely how you feel, asking in different ways,
Should be the same level of loneliness

Question 13

Chapter4

Question 14

Why do we need ethics?

Answer 14

Researchers are not always objective
Just because something advances the field doesn’t mean it doesn’t also harm the participants
Checks and balances: Not just one person holding the power and deeming the study as good/bad

Question 15

Nazi human experimentation (1942-1945): Medical experiments in concentration camps.

Answer 15

Twins: control and experimental
Vaccines
Human limits
Freezing
Mustard gas: Finding effective treatment
Chambers of high altitude simulation
Poisoning
Blood coagulation

Question 16

Tuskegee Study (1932-1972): Effects of untreated syphilis

Answer 16

Only used Black men and weren’t told that they had syphilis.
Told that they had bad blood and weren’t medically treated for syphilis
Wanted to understand the damage it caused and if it actually needed to be treated
Study continued after penicillin (treatment for syphilis) was created
Justification was that they did nothing to worsen the disease, they just didn’t treat it.

Question 17

Henrietta Lacks (1951): Cell harvesting without consent

Answer 17

Mother of 5 had vaginal bleeding and had cervical cancer
Used radiation treatment
Took her cells and tested them without her knowing
Her cells doubled every 20-24 hours, unlike the others which would die quickly

Question 18

Refrigerator Study (1958): Can children escape from refrigerators?

Answer 18

201 children; age 2-5
Locked kids in the fridge to see which release devices worked best

Question 19

Milgram Obedience Study (1961)

Answer 19

Post APA guidelines
Learner was a confederate. Gave mainly wrong answers and wasn’t actually shocked
Teacher (research participant): shock learner each time they answer wrong
Increase shock voltage after each wrong answer
Reminded them what they signed up for is someone said they wouldn’t shock them
Psychological harm

Question 20

Zimbardo Prison Study (1973): How strong does a role influence a person’s behavior?

Answer 20

Prisoner or guard
Chose similar people as participants
Guards went power crazy; prisoners became very stressed
No checks and balances

Question 21

Nuremberg code: Process of informed consent.

Answer 21

Participation in research is voluntary and participants must be given information about the risks involved in the research
Research must contribute to scientific knowledge and be conducted by qualified researchers
Researchers need to avoid unnecessary harm, take precautions against risk, ensure the benefits outweigh the risks of the study, and terminate the study if unforeseen harm comes to the participants
Participants have the right to discontinue their participation in the study for any reason

Question 22

APA Ethics Code:

Answer 22

1953 APA developed their own code for psychology
Researchers must reduce harm due to deception
Ensure confidentiality of participant data
Leave the responsibility of overseeing research studies to the researchers

Question 23

Belmont Report
Beneficence:

Answer 23

Treated in an ethical manner not only by protecting their decisions and protecting them from harm to make efforts to secure their well-being.
This is often understood to cover acts of kindness or charity that go beyond strict obligation
Two general rules have been formulated as complementary expressions of beneficent actions in this sense: (1) do not harm and (2) maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms

Question 24

Belmont Report Justice:

Answer 24

Injustice occurs when some benefit to which a person is entitled is denied without food reason or when some burden is imposed unduly. Another way of receiving the principle of justice is that equals ought to be treated equally

Question 25

Belmont Report Respect for persons:

Answer 25

Respect for persons incorporates at least two ethical convictions: Autonomous agent. Even individuals with diminished autonomy are entitled to protection The principle of respect for persons thus divides into two separate moral requirements: the requirement to acknowledge autonomy and the requirement to protect those with diminished autonomy

Question 26

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Answer 26

Performs risk-benefit analysis to ensure all studies meet community standards of ethical behavior. Checks and balances.

Question 27

Institutional Review Board (IRB) Composition

Answer 27

University instructors and researchers University staff with research protocol expertise Community members (minister, business person, etc.)

Question 28

IRB Proposal

Answer 28

Non-technical summary of the practical and theoretical research goals Detailed description of research procedures

Question 29

Key ethics issues addressed in IRB:

Answer 29

Informed consent Reduce harm Confidentiality Lack of coercion Lack of deception Debriefing Ethics in reporting results Minor giving consent is called assent

Question 30

Chapter 6

Question 31

Construct Validity Of Surveys and Polls

Answer 31

Survey/poll Choosing question formats Writing well-worded questions

Question 32

Open-ended questions

Answer 32

What do you think of this class? Con: process code and analyze that data, time consuming, may restrict the answers

Question 33

Forced choice format

Answer 33

Do you like this class so far? Yes or no

Question 34

Likert Scale

Answer 34

Ex: Asked to reflect their degree of agreement Anchored by the terms strongly agree, agree, neither agree neither disagree, disagree, strongly disagree If there are more or less answers than stated above, it is a likert-type scale How strongly they agree and disagree; not using likert scale

Question 35

Semantic Differential Format

Answer 35

Rate a target object using a numeric scale. Anchored by adjectives RATE MY PROFESSORS 1-5, hardest class I have ever done, taken this class before How difficult is this class? Easy 1 2 3 4 5 Hard

Question 36

Double-barreled question

Answer 36

Do you enjoy swimming and wearing sunscreen? How well that variable was captured or measured Clear and straightforward How questions are asked

Question 37

Negatively Worded Question

Answer 37

More cognitively difficult a question is to answer the more difficult it will be People who do not drive with a suspended license should never be punished Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Agree Not that clear, can reduce the construct validity by adding a cognitive load, get in the way of someone’s opinion

Question 38

QUESTION order

Answer 38

Earlier items can influence the response of later items Primed by first item Reduce this problem by creating different versions of the survey with questions in different orders to reduce order effect

Question 39

Response sets

Answer 39

Weaken construct validity, aren;t saying what they think Answering a number of questions in the same way

Question 40

Acquiescence (yea-saying)

Answer 40

Type of response set by just saying yes Just answering positively to all of the questions ]

Question 41

Fence Sitting

Answer 41

Not answering one extreme or the other, choosing neutral for every answer. Not getting everyone’s true opinion Use force choice or remove neutral response questions to avoid it Reversing the wording of item to see who is ROSENBERG SELF ESTEEM

Question 42

Trying to look Good

Answer 42

Social desirable responding/faking good Do something different than what we are Fake bad as well \trying to look bad Make it anonymous, making it more comfortable for true response Self report Asking people more than they even know issue

Question 43

Self reporting memories of events

Answer 43

Might not get data on past events Where were you when you got acceptance letter? Rating consumer products

Question 44

Observational research

Answer 44

Watches an individual and systematically recording their actions Some people believe that it is better Frequency claims are based on observational data Observing how much people talk

Question 45

Observer Bias

Answer 45

when observers see what they expect to see WAtch a videotape of a man; half was told he was a criminal half was a graduate Bias comes in, when you are watching something with those terms

Question 46

Observer effects

Answer 46

when participants confirm an observer’s expectations Children in school, teacher expectations, If one teacher expect high performance, they get high performance Clever Hans

Question 47

Masked design,

Answer 47

Clear rating scales or clear code books Observers won’t know what positions your participants are assigned to or what the study is about

Question 48

Reactivity

Answer 48

when participants react to being watched: changing how they are act because someone is watching

Question 49

Solutions for Reactivity

Answer 49

Solution 1: Blend in Unobtrusive Observations Try to make yourself less obvious by sitting in the back of the classroom or being in a double mirror room. Solution 2: Wait it out Goal is to get your participant used to your presence Solution 3: measure the behavior’s results

Question 50

Exam Review

Question 51

Open-ended

Answer 51

too much data too much time to sort through

Question 52

Physiological

Answer 52

changes in brain waves, heart rate, respiration

Question 53

Two research assistants watching some behaviors

Answer 53

their scores are not very correlated, internal reliability, need to be retrained, or that the code book is clear

Question 54

Categorical way to operationalize some variable

Answer 54

People are anxious Not really anxious Very anxious CATEGORIES

Question 55

Double-barrel question

Answer 55

two questions in one Issue: hard to measure, some people might interpret in different ways, have people answering 1 question, but you don’t know what question the person is answering

Question 56

Ordinal Scale 2

Answer 56

Ordinal scale is using numbers to rank individuals 1 2 3 4

Question 57

Test-retest reliability 2

Answer 57

measure things at different time points, we should get similar test results

Question 58

Ratio scale and interval scale

Answer 58

ratio-has a true zero Interval: no real zero

Question 59

Good internal reliability

Answer 59

have a measure of happiness ask it in different ways; all ways are highly correlated with each other for each person

Question 60

TUSKEGEEE

Question 61

Belmont report 2

Answer 61

Belmont report: beneficence, justice, respect for persons REMEMBER WHAT THESE ARE AND WHAT WE MEANS

Question 62

How to be coercion in results

Answer 62

give an incentive, money, so hard for them to say no to

Question 63

ZImbardo

Answer 63

researchers were given authority about theri own studies, he didn’t have to go through IRB oversight over the study

Question 64

Purpose of the Institutional Review Board

Answer 64

to make sure studies met standard met ethical behavior and protect human subjects

Question 65

Studies about UNC: like or don’t like UNC, participants only like unc, nothing bad, what might this suggest?

Answer 65

Yay- saying, individuals agree with everything, short way to get through studies

Question 66

Construct validity

Answer 66

How was depression measured-want to make sure everyone is very clear when you ask them how they experience or define depression

Question 67

External Validity

Answer 67

Generalizability If there are particular study and you focus on one demographic of college students in a specific region that you need to consider Are we able to apply the conclusions of the study outside of the context of that study? Context of which a study can be generalized to the larger population

Question 68

Statistical Validity

Answer 68

Statistical The extent to whether or not the conclusion of the study can be reliable and accurate Talking about the stats We may been looking at means and other statistical variables which we have thresholds for-those thresholds tell us how statistically valid those thresholds are. Do we see high mean

Question 69

Internal Validity

Answer 69

Try to understand if we have considered all types of variable that may contribute to the results we get. Even with all of that we have to consider if the variable we manipulated caused the outcome we got. Are the results we obtained solely affected by the changes that we manipulated as researchers. (not from the some confounding variable