research methods pt 2

Question 1

Pilot study

Answer 1

Small scale trial run of a research study. They take place before the full-scale research project. Usually will take a smaller amount of participants who can be questioned afterwards about their experiences.

Question 2

Aims of the pilot study

Answer 2

• Check that the research works
• No extraneous variables
• Any problems can be rectified before running the full scale study
• E.g. instructions and questions clarified, materials refined and improved, timings can be changed.

Question 3

Population

Answer 3

A large group of individuals who share specific characteristics that a researcher is interested in studying. It doesn’t refer to the general population but the ‘target population’ as it refers to a particular subset of the population.

Question 4

Sample

Answer 4

A smaller group of people taken from a larger population the researcher is interested in studying.

Question 5

Bias

Answer 5

This refers to under-representing or over-representing certain groups within the sample. For example, too many younger people or too few males.

Question 6

Generalisation

Answer 6

The extent to which findings from a specific sample can be applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample is representative of the population.

Question 7

Opportunity sampling

Answer 7

Selecting anyone who is willing and available to take art at the time. E.g. approaching people in the street. This is the most common sampling technique used in psychological research and often results in students being used since most research takes place within universities.

Question 8

Advantage of opportunity sampling: Quick, convenient and economical

Answer 8

This means that it doesn’t require the level of planning and preparation that many other sampling methods require.
For example, a study into stress levels during shopping can simply involve a researcher approaching shoppers at a shopping centre rather than having to pre-identify participants.
This is positive as it leads to less delays in the research process and less money spent.

Question 9

Disadvantage of opportunity sampling: can be biased and unrepresentative

Answer 9

This means that the participants that happen to be available at the time of the study may not represent everyone in the target population.
For example, if a study is conducted in the middle of the working day, the sample my only include people who work reduced hours or the unemployed.
researchers may avoid people they do not like the look of (researcher bias) This is problematic because it means the sample may be biased and cannot be generalised to everyone, lowering ecological validity.

Question 10

Volunteer (self-selected) sampling

Answer 10

Individuals who have put themselves forward. The researcher may place adverts in newspapers or uni noticeboards.

Question 11

Advantage of VOLUNTEER SAMPLING: QUICK, CONVENIENT AND ECONOMICAL:

Answer 11

This means that it doesn’t require the level of planning and prep that many other sampling methods require to identify participants. For example, a researcher studying memory can advertise for participants and the participant should present themselves.
This is positive as there are less delays in the research process and less money spend.

Question 12

DISADVANTAGE OF VOLUNTEER SAMPLING:

CAN BE BIASED AND UNREPRESENTATIVE:

Answer 12

This means that volunteers tend to be a certain type of person.
For example, they tend to be more confident and motivated than most.
This is problematic as it means the sample may be biased (known as ‘volunteer bias’) and the findings and cannot be generalised to everyone, lowering ecological validity.1

Question 13

Systematic sampling

Answer 13

selecting every nth member of the target population. This involves obtaining a list of names of every one in the target population (e.g school register or database of members) organised in some way (eg alphabetical) and choosing for example every 5th name.

Question 14

ADVANTAGE OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING:

AVOIDS RESEARCHER BIAS:

Answer 14

This means the researcher has no influence over who is chosen as it simply who happens to be in certain positions in a list that are selected.
For example, picking whoever happens to be in every 5th position on an alphabetical list prevents them from only choosing people they think will help support their hypothesis.
This is positive as the research is less biased, more objective and less open to abuse or researcher influence.

Question 15

DISADVANTAGE OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING:

NOT GUARANTEED TO BE REPRESENTATIVE:

Answer 15

This means that every nth name on a list could, by chance, lead to only a certain type of person being selected. For example, every nth name could be male even though there are just as many females on the list. Furthermore, there is still an element of bias involved as not everyone has an equal chance of being selected as people with names at the start of a register, for example, are unlikely to be selected. This is a problem as the findings cannot be generalised to everyone, lowering ecological validity.

Question 16

Random sampling

Answer 16

Where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. There must be a list of everyone in the target population. All names are assigned a number, then the sample is generated through a lottery method (eg random number generator/ names out of a hat)

Question 17

ADVANTAGE OF RANDOM SAMPLING:

AVOIDS RESEARCHER BIAS:

Answer 17

This means that the researcher has no influence over who is being selected.
For example, picking names from a hat prevents them from only choosing people they think will help support their hypothesis.
This is positive because random samples are less biased, more objective and less open to abuse or researcher influence.

Question 18

DISADVANTAGE OF RANDOM SAMPLING:

NOT GUARANTEED TO BE REPRESENTATIVE:

Answer 18

This means that drawing names randomly from a hat could still, by chance, lead to only a certain type of person being selected. For example, every name drawn could be male even though there are just as many females in the hat. This is a problem as the findings cannot be generalised to everyone, lowering ecological validity.

Question 19

Stratified sampling

Answer 19

A sample that reflects the proportions of people in different sub groups according to their frequency in the population. (eg 15% of the population are from a particular age group then 15% of the sample should be from that age group.
The sub groups need to be identified then the proportions need to be worked out. then the participants from each sub group are chosen randomly. putting all the names of males in one hat and females in the other.

Question 20

ADVANTAGE OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING:

HIGHLY REPRESENTATIVE:

Answer 20

This means it not only avoids researcher bias but also ensures all subgroups are proportionally represented in the sample.
For example, picking names from hats prevents the researcher from only choosing people they think will help support their hypothesis but also the focus on subgroups means the process isn’t left entirely to chance to represent all types of people.
This is positive because it is likely to be more representative than other sampling techniques.

Question 21

DISADVANTAGE OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING:

TIME-CONSUMING AND INCONVENIENT:

Answer 21

This means it takes a great deal of planning to identify relevant subgroups and count frequencies within each subgroup prior to starting the random selection process.
For example, none of this level of planning is necessary with opportunity or volunteer samples.
This is a problem because there are more delays in the research process and more money spent.

Question 22

Aim

Answer 22

General statement about what the research intends to study. It states the purpose of the study.

Question 23

Hypothesis

Answer 23

Precise and testable statement that states the relationship between variables.

Question 24

Directional hypothesis

Answer 24

states there will be an effect and states which way it will go.

Question 25

Non-directional hypothesis

Answer 25

There will be an effect but not which way it will go.

Question 26

How do psychologists justify a directional hypothesis?

Answer 26

Past research.

Question 27

What is the template for a directional hypothesis?

Answer 27

Participants that (insert IV1) … will (do the DV) significantly (choose a term to indicate the direction of the DV E.g. less/more/higher/lower/faster/slower) than participants that (insert IV2)…

Question 28

Operationalisation

Answer 28

Clearly defining the variables to make them testable and measurable.

Question 29

Experimental design

Answer 29

The way in which participants are allocated to the different conditions.

Question 30

What are the 3 experimental designs?

Answer 30

Repeated Measures, Independent Groups, Matched Pairs design.

Question 31

Repeated Measures design

Answer 31

All participants take part in all conditions. one group of participants completes one condition and the same group takes place in the next condition.

Question 32

What are examples of repeated measures design?

Answer 32

Testing the effect of noise on memory, the group of participants could be tested in noisy conditions (condition A) in the morning and then the same group would be tested in silent conditions (condition B) in the afternoon.

Question 33

Advantage of using a repeated measures design: No participant variables

Answer 33

This means that there will not be individual differences between the participants in each condition.
For example, participants in condition A will not differ in any way from participants in condition B because they are the same participants.
This is positive because it increases the internal validity of the research.

Question 34

Advantage of using a repeated measures design: Requires half the number of participants as other designs

Answer 34

This means that less participants are needed compared to independent groups or matched pairs designs to achieve the same amount of data.
For example, to achieve 10 participants in each condition, only 10 participants are needed in total compared to 20 being needed for other designs.
This is positive as it means studies using this design does not have as many participants which is cheaper and less time consuming.

Question 35

Disadvantage of using a repeated measures design: Suffers from order effects.

Answer 35

This means that the order participants complete the different conditions may affect their performance. For example, participants may do better in the second test because they have already had practice at the task (practice effect) or may do worse because they are bored with doing the same task again (boredom effect).
This is a problem as it would lower the internal validity of the research.

Question 36

Disadvantage of using a repeated measures design: high demand characteristics

Answer 36

This means that participants have more of a chance of guessing the aim of the experiment which might effect their behavior
For example, completing a memory task in noisy conditions and then in silence, participants may work out what you’re expecting them to achieve and change their behaviour accordingly.
This is a problem as it reduces the study’s internal validity.

Question 37

Independent groups design

Answer 37

Participants are placed into separate (independent) groups. Each group completes one condition of the experiment only.
E.g. effects of noise on memory, condition A completes in noisy conditions and condition B completes in silent conditions.

Question 38

Advantages of using Independent Groups Design: Does not suffer from order effects

Answer 38

This means that the order participants complete the different conditions does not affect performance because participants only complete one condition.
For example, participants will not do better (practice effect) or worse (boredom effect) in the second task because they only complete one task.
This is positive as it increases the internal validity of the research.

Question 39

Advantages of using Independent Groups Design: Low demand characteristics

Answer 39

This means that participants have less of a chance of guessing the aim of the experiment.
For example, as participants only take part in one condition, they are not necessarily aware of the research expectations so their behaviour is less likely to change to fit in with these expectations. This is positive as ti increases the slide’s internal validity.

Question 40

Disadvantages of using Independent groups design: Low degree of control over participants.

Answer 40

This mean that there might be individual variables between the participants in each condition that have not been controlled and could unfairly influence the results.
For example, participants in condition A may be, on average, much more intelligent than those in condition B.
This is problematic because it decreases the internal validity of the research and may confound the results.

Question 41

Disadvantage of using Independent Groups Design: Requires twice as many participants as repeated measures design

Answer 41

This means that more participants are needed with this design to achieve the required amount of participants.
For example, to achieve 10 participants in each condtion, 20 participants are needed in total compared to only 10 being needed for repeated measures design. This is negative as it means that studies are going to have to recruit double participants with is more time consuming.

Question 42

Matched Pairs Design

Answer 42

Different participants are used in each condition. However, the participants are matched into pairs based on important characteristics.

Question 43

Advantages of using matched pairs design: does not suffer from order effects.

Answer 43

This means that the order participants complete the different conditions does not affect performance because participants only complete one condition.
For example, participants will not do better (practice effect) or worse (boredom effect) in the second task because they only complete me task.
This is positive as it increases the internal validity of the research.

Question 44

Advantages of using matched pairs design: Low demand characteristics

Answer 44

This means that participants have less of a chance of guessing the aim of the experiment.
For example, as participants only take part in one condition, they are not necessarily aware of the research expectations so their behaviour is less likely to change to fit in with these expectations.
This is positive as it raises the study’s internal validity.

Question 45

Disadvantage of using the matched pairs design: less control of participant variables than repeated measures design.

Answer 45

This means that, although participants have been matched on important characteristics to control participant variables more than an independent groups design, there is still more chance of individual differences between participants in each condition than a repeated measures that could still unfairly influence the results.
For example, participants in condition A may be, on average, much more intelligent than those in condition B.
This is problematic because it decreases the internal validity of the research and may confound the results.

Question 46

Disadvantages of using matched pairs design: Requires twice as many participants as a repeated measures design.

Answer 46

This means that more participants are needed with this design to achieve the same amount of data.
For example, to achieve 10 participants in each condition, 20 participants are needed in total compared to only 10 being needed for a repeated measures design.
This is negative as it means studies using this design have to recruit more participants which is more expensive and more time-consuming.

Question 47

Random allocation

Answer 47

Way of controlling researcher bias from the process of allocating participants to condition in an independent groups design. You need to assign all of the participants a number and put all the numbers in a hat. Every other number goes into condition A. This helps reduce bias and control participant variables.

Question 48

Counterbalancing

Answer 48

Controlling the impact of order effects in a repeated measures design. Half of the participants start in condition a followed by condition B and half the participants starting in condition B followed by A ‘ABBA’. Balances out the problem of order effects. Order effects are distributed evenly across both condition.