Research Methods (YR12+13) Flashcards
(82 cards)
1
Q
define primary data
A
- primary data = data collected first hand from sociologists for their own use
2
Q
define secondary data
A
- secondary data = data collected by other sociologists, Gov departments or official bodies (e.g. charities) or individuals
3
Q
outline the advantages + disadvantages of primary data
A
- A: more accurate/ specific to the topic being studied. more trustworthy
- D: time consuming, expensive, cant be compared over time
3
Q
give examples of primary data
A
- interviews, questionaries, experiments
3
Q
what are the advantages + disadvantages of qualitative data
A
- A: provides rich insight into peoples feelings + views
- D: hard to compare and analysis can be time consuming
4
Q
give examples of secondary data
A
- official statistics (crime rates, league tables), documents (newspapers, diaries)
4
Q
outline the advantages + disadvantages of secondary data
A
- A: cheaper, quicker
- D: less accurate/ specific to topic being studied
5
Q
what are positivists 5 main viewpoints
A
1) society can be measured objectively
2) prefer quantitative data + methods
3) society/ institutions exerts influence over its members + shapes their behaviour (structural ideology)
4) P seek cause and effect
5) P prefer questionnaires, structured interviews, experiments, and official stats as they produce reliable and representative data
5
Q
define + give examples of quantitative data
A
- quantitative data = data in the form of numbers
- e.g. percentages, statistics
5
Q
define + give examples of qualitative data
A
- qualitative data = data in the form of everything other than numbers
- e.g. interviews, documents, pictures
5
Q
what does PERVRT stand for
A
Practical
Ethical
Reliable
Valid
Representative
Theoretical perspective
6
Q
what are the advantages + disadvantages of quantitative data
A
- A: can spot trends and compare data throughout time
- D: doesn’t provide thorough insight into peoples views
6
Q
what are interpretivists 5 main viewpoints
A
1) society cannot be measured objectively
2) prefer qualitative data + methods
3) individuals construct their own reality (social action)
4) I seek to gain a subjective understanding of individuals meanings
5) I prefer participant observation, unstructured interviews + personal documents as they produce valid data
7
Q
what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching teachers
A
- power relationships; teachers have more power; may be translated on researchers. they should pose as TAs or supplies to equalise the power imbalance
- teachers are over worked; may be less cooperative
- teachers are used to being scrutinised (e.g. OFSTED)/ HAWTHORNE EFFECT (people behave differently when they know they’re being watched); may not give valid answers if it reflects badly on school
7
Q
what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching schools
A
- is a formal organisation and has a formal hierarchy; headteachers may disapprove of possible interruptions, or in same sex skls, an opposite gendered researcher may cause implications
- headteachers hold the power; they are the gatekeepers who have the power to refuse researcher’s access to their school
- legal framework creates certain requirements; there is a strict legal duty of care that schools have for their pupils
8
Q
define triangulation
A
- triangulation = the combined use of different types of methods (e.g. both quant. and qual. methods) to counteract the limitations of each method
8
Q
outline Validity
A
Validity
- how close the results are to the truth
9
Q
outline Ethical
A
Ethical - Cerys Is Very, Hugely Crazy
- Confidentiality; identity of Ps kept private
- Informed consent; Participants made aware of all elements. can back out of/ refuse to take part in research
- Vulnerable groups; special care for vulnerable groups (children, disability, mental health)
- Harmful effects; will the study negatively affect Ps
- Covert research; hiding the researchers identity and topic of research can cause ethical problems
9
Q
outline Practical
A
Practical - MERAT:
- Money: how expensive, is it in budget
- Effort: how much effort is needed
- Research opportunity
- Access: is there a gatekeeper to access the study group - e.g. headmaster - children
- Time: how time consuming is the study
10
Q
outline Reliable
A
Reliable
- can it be replicated to get the same results
- Positivists care about this
10
Q
outline Theoretical perspectives
A
Theoretical perspectives
- Interpretivists + Positivists perspectives
11
Q
outline Representativeness
A
Representativeness
- can the data be generalised to a wider population
- Positivists care about this
12
Q
what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching in classrooms
A
- controlled social setting; highly controlled environment - behaviour observed may not be accurate
- may disguise real thoughts; teachers + pupils are used to disguising true feelings; may conceal true feelings from researcher
- peer pressure as influence; young people are more sensitive to peer pressure - reduces validity
12
Q
what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching young pupils
A
- power and status; they have less power, may not feel comfortable
- ability; comprehension skills + vocab are developing - researchers have to take more care when forming Qs (OPERATIONALISING)
- vulnerability; are more vulnerable to physical + psychological harm
13
outline the 4 steps of the research process
1) deciding on hypothesis/ aim; a statement outlining what you intend to study -e.g. 'does class affect achievement'
2) operationalise concepts; turning sociological concepts into measurable data - e.g. to find someone's social class 'what is your job?'
3) pilot study; a small scale trial run done to find any flaws to save money + time for the real study
4) choose your sampling frame (e.g. electoral roll) and technique to find a sample
14
what 3 factors should be taken into consideration when researching parents
- interactions; parents raise their kids individually + differently - not all kids react the same way
- are mostly outside of school and so harder to research; parents play a vital role in child's education but most of their interactions happen at home which is closed off to research
- some may be more/ less willing to participate than others; class, gender, ethnicity play in apart in how willing they are- e.g. M/C parents more likely than W/C parents - creates unrepresentative data
14
outline simple random sampling + its As and Ds
- every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected; e.g. pulling names out of a hat
- A: practical, easy
- D: might not be representative
15
outline systematic random sampling + its As and Ds
- systematically selecting people from the sampling frame by choosing every 5th or 15th person, for example
- A: replicable
- D: may be unrepresentative
16
outline stratified random sampling + its As and Ds
- selecting members in proportion to what % of the population they make up. e.g. 2.5% of Brits are of Indian origin, so 2.5% of the sample will be of Indian origin
- A: representative - it reflects society accurately
- D: is time consuming
17
outline volunteer sampling + its As and Ds
- made up of individuals who have decided to be involved in a study; e.g. through a newspaper advert
- A: practical
- D: not representative
18
outline the comparative method
- the comparative method is carried out only in the mind of the sociologist - its a 'thought experiment' - real people arent experimented on
- it re-analyses secondary data and discovers cause + effect relationships
- it identifies 2 groups that are alike except the variable being studied - then compare the 2 groups to see if the variable has any effect
- e.g. Durkheim's study of suicide which analysed official stats
- this method avoids artificiality, can study past events, avoids ethnical issues of deceit
- BUT, it gives researcher less control, unreliable
18
outline opportunity sampling + its As and Ds
- selecting those who are easiest to access at the time; e.g. interviewing people on the street
- A: practical; quick, cheap, easy
- D: may not be representative of population
18
outline snowball sampling + its As and Ds
- finding participants based on contacts. participants find other participants through word of mouth
- A: practical; easy
- D: not representative
19
outline quota sampling + its As and Ds
- separating a sample into categories (e.g. male and female) and then looking for specific qualities of that sample (a quota) (e.g. 100 males, 100 females)
- A: representative
- D: lacks practicality
19
outline questionnaires
- close ended: Ps choose from a limited range of possible answers selected in advance
- open ended: Ps are free to answer however they wish without pre selected answers by the researcher
19
outline field experiments
- takes place in the subjects natural surroundings (e.g. school)
- those involved arent aware that they are involved in an experiment - eliminates Hawthorne effect
- the researcher changes an independent variable (cause) to measure the effect (dependent variable)
20
outline laboratory experiments
- experiments in a controlled, artificial environment that use scientific methods to test a hypothesis
- can control the variables
- there is an experimental (exposed to independent variable) + a control group (not exposed to indep. variable)
- can discover cause + effect and patterns (predictions) through the experimental + control groups
- but Lab experiments are rarely used in sociology
21
outline lab experiments in terms of PERVRT
- P: lacks, is more difficult to conduct, costly, time consuming
- E: lacks, lacks informed consent, deception - e.g. Milgram, Zimbardo
- R: has, standardised procedure + detached researcher, controllable variables, produces quant data, a detached + objective method
- V: lacks, Pos; is a controlled environment - isnt the real world, Hawthorne effect, lacks 'internal validity' (findings arent true for Ps due to artificial environment)
- R: lacks, small sample sizes, lacks 'external validity' (aren't generalisable to wider pop), high level of control - more unnatural
21
outline field experiments in terms of PERVRT
- P: lacks, gatekeepers can prevent access to an environment (e.g. school). can be time consuming
- E: lacks, potential for harm, lack of informed consent, e.g. Jacobsen + Rosenthal
- R: lacks, procedures may differ in different settings and so cant control all variables
- V: has, is a less artificial setting. people are unaware of them being studied - lack of Hawthorne Effect
- R: lacks, hard to obtain a perfectly representative sample
- T: favoured by Int, not by Pos
22
outline questionnaires in terms of ERVR
- E: has, you can choose to not answer the questionnaire
- R: has, replicable due to standardised nature (Qs are a standardised measuring instrument), easily comparable
- V: lacks, close-ended Qs with pre set answers restrict the interviewee's responses. pre set answers may not reflect the respondent's view - doesn't give true picture. 'right-answerism'
- R: lacks, low response rate, certain people are more likely to respond - e.g. unemployed, BUT; large scale, Qs more likely to use R sampling methods, easily accessible to many people
23
outline questionnaires in terms of Theoretical perspectives
Positivists:
- like: Questionnaires produce representative findings that are generalisable + reliable + objective + tests hypothesis + scientific/ objective
- little personal involvement w/ respondents
Interpretivists:
- dislike: Qs are invalid due to objectivity of researchers/ detached nature which disallows valid data + fails to obtain meanings of social actors
- lying/ forgetting from respondents skews validity - e.g. Schofield's study
- can impose researcher's meanings - e.g the choice of Qs shows what is important to researcher
24
outline positivists hypothesis testing with questionnaires
- Ps seek to discover cause + effect
- Questionnaires allow Ps to identify c+e and test hypothesis
- for Ps to test hypothesis, they must identify a link between the 2 variables
- Qs establish correlations from which Ps can construct a hypothesis
25
define standardised measuring stick
- standardised measuring stick = refers to a research method (e.g. questionnaires) that can be used by any researcher - allowing research to be easily replicated + checked by another
- also means that any differences in answers is due to the real differences of respondents - not the researcher
26
outline interviews
- structured: every interview is conducted in the same standardised procedure - same questions, order, one of voice.
- unstructured: like a guided conversation, interviewer is free to vary the qs, wording, order etc.
- group: usually unstructured, includes focus groups
- semi-structured: same set of questions, but the interviewer can probe for more info + additional Qs
27
outline unstructured interviews in terms of PERVR
- P: lacks, time-consuming, must thoroughly train interviewers (costly), unable to quantify data easily
- E: has, is good for researching sensitive issues as researchers can build a rapport + a relationship. e.g. Dobash and Dobash
- R: lacks, due to natural flow of conversation - its not replicable and wont give you the same results
- V: has, no set Qs and so interviewee can speak at length about topic, gives rich qual. data, informality allows a rapport (trusting relationship), allows sensitive topics to be discussed
- R: lacks, there are fewer interviews due to lengthy nature of them and so a less generalisable sample
28
outline unstructured interviews in terms of Theoretical perspectives
Interpretivists:
- like: rich, authentic qualitative data - understanding comes through involvement
- grounded theory: we build up + modify our hypothesis throughout the research, based on facts we learn - for this, UI are best
- open-ended Qs allow for in-depth/ unrestricted answers/ the true meaning
Positivists:
- dislike: UIs lack objectivity + reliability due to lack of standardised measuring instrument
- answers cant be easily quantified + categorised and so cant correlate variables, test hypothesis, or establish cause + effect links
- unrepresentative data due to small sample size + subjective
28
outline structured interviews in terms of Theoretical perspectives (+ Feminists)
Positivists:
- like; SI are representative (large numbers can be surveyed, high response rate), reliable (easy to replicate), objective, can test hypothesis (can est correlations)
Interpretivists:
- dislike; provides a false picture; invalid due to close ended Qs, people can lie/ exaggerate
Feminists:
- dislike: relationship between the researcher + researched reflects the exploitative nature of patriarchal society
- strict division of labour (researcher as active role, interviewees as passive role)
28
outline the 3 values of feminist approaches to research
- value committed: takes the w's side + aims to voice their experiences + to free them from patriarchal oppression
- involvement: researchers should be involved rather than detached from the research
- equality + collaboration: there should be this between the researcher + subject, rather than being hierarchal
29
outline 'getting into' observation groups
- making initial contact with a group will depend on personal factors such as having the right connections - may be gatekeepers to access - e.g. headteachers
- the researcher will have to win the group's trust to overcome their suspicions - their age, race, gender etc may be an obstacle if it differs from group
- once entered, the R must adopt a specific role that is non-disruptive + a good vantage point for observations
29
outline structured interviews in terms of PERVR
- P: has, is quick, cheap, can cover large numbers of people, data is easily quantifiable, suitable for hypothesis testing, small cost for training interviewers, high response rate - but; inflexible, are snapshots of 1 point in time
- E: may lack if researching vulnerable groups, e.g. children, pressure to answer sensitive Qs, anonymous
- R: has, pre set Qs allow procedure to be repeated with similar results, easily comparable
- V: lacks, close-ended / pre set Qs create limited choice for answers - leads to invalid data
- R: has, quick nature of interviews allows for a large number of people to be studied, high response rate, sophisticated sampling techniques
29
outline 'staying in' observation groups
- when accepted, the R must be involved enough to understand the group fully whilst staying detached to remain unbiased
30
outline observations
- non-participant observation = the researcher observes the group without taking part
- participant observation = the researcher takes part in the group whilst observing
- structured non-participant observation = uses a structured observational schedule (pre-determined list of behaviours the interviewer is interested in). each time a behaviour is observed, it's noted - produces quant data
- overt observation = researcher's role + purpose is known to those being studied
- covert observation = researchers role + purpose is unknown, they pose as a genuine member of the group
30
outline 'getting out' of observation groups
- leaving a group the R has become acclimatised to and then re-entering reality can be difficult
- loyalty to the group may prevent the R from fully disclosing all details to protect them
31
outline covert observation in terms of PERVRT
- P: lacks, issue of access - headteacher acts as gatekeeper
- E: lacks informed consent - issue of deceit
- R: gives qual data
- V: has, more valid data - no Hawthorne effect/ no impression management. lacks, cant openly take notes - take them from memory
- R: has, schools are representative of population
- T: Positivists dislike, Int like
31
outline overt observation in terms of PERVRT
- P: lacks, may not be bale to gain access (e.g. to schools), have to work around timetables/ holidays, and schools may be less likely to allow your access if they know you're a researcher
- E: has, has informed consent, no deceit
- R: lacks, no standardised, repeatable procedure
- V: lacks, doesn't as provide in depth info + Hawthorne Effect/ impression management
- R: has, schools are representative of population
- T: pos: like structured NPO; can easily quantify data - don't like PO. Int: like PO - gives rich data
32
outline participant observation in terms of PERVR
- E: lacks, if covert, there is issue of deceit
- R: lacks, doesn't have a standardised procedure, so not easily replicable. also, produces qualitative data so cant easily compare data / identify trends
- V: has, provides rich qualitative research, 'verstehen', can build a rapport, flexibility, BUT, Hawthorne effect (in overt O)
- R: lacks, PO study groups are small + the sample wont perfectly reflect population in the way a stratified random sample would
33
outline documents
- is a secondary source
- documents include: written texts (diaries, letters, texts, state records etc), other texts (paintings, music, photos etc)
- 3 types of documents: public (produced by organisations - e.g. media output, Ofsted), personal (e.g. letters, photo albums, social media pages), and historical (personal or public docs made in the past)
33
outline participant observation in terms of Theoretical perspectives (+ social action)
Interpretivists:
- like: gains insight into actor's meanings
- the R can gain a subjective understanding of the subject's life through their high level of involvement (verstehen)
Positivists:
- dislike: lacks representativeness due to small sample size and so isnt generalisable
- lacks reliability as PO isnt a standardised, scientific measuring instrument
- lacks objectivity - R can get attached/ loyal to subjects
social action:
- like: PO allows for observations of micro-level interactions first-hand
34
outline non-participant observation in terms of PERVRT
- P: lacks, time-consuming, issue of access, must be trained
- E: lacks, if covert - issue of lack of informed consent
- R: lacks, no standardised procedure, so not easily replicable. also, produces qualitative data - cant easily compare data / identify trends
- V: lacks, wont be as much of a true picture
- R: lacks, PO study groups are small + the sample wont perfectly reflect population in the way a stratified random sample would
- T: Pos like structured NPO
34
define verstehen
- verstehen = understanding someones lived experience (putting yourself in someone else's shoes)
35
outline Scott's 4 criteria for assessing document's validity - CRAM
CRAM:
1) Credibility: is it believable + sincere, diaries of politicians may be intended for publication, does it historically match up to the events of the time?
2) Representativeness: are other Ds of the period typical to that one, not all survived Ds are available for public use,
3) Authenticity: is the D what it claims to be, are there missing pages, who wrote it
4) Meaning: the researcher may need special skills to understand a D - e.g. translate from another language. also, meanings change over time
35
outline documents in terms of PERVR
- P: has, cheap + easy access for most Ds - not all, may be only available source for historical info, saves time. lacks, is it authentic, not always possible to access
- E: has, may lack consent of the person who owns that D (esp. if historical)
- R: lacks, Ds are unique + not standardised
- V: has, verstehen. lacks, Ds can be personal + not objective - can create a false view of someone - e.g. diaries - was it written to be published?
- R: lacks, with Hist. Ds, not representative + typical of all views of that period, aren't many Hist Ds - cant generalise, some groups may not be represented in docs (e.g. the illiterate), not all Ds are accessible, not all Ds survive
36
outline documents in terms of Theoretical perspectives
Interpretivists
- like: provides a valid picture of actors' meanings, lack of Hawthorne effect as they aren't written for sociological use
Positivists
- dislike: theyre unreliable - they arent standardised, unrepresentative as some may not be represented in docs (e.g. the illiterate)
37
outline official statistics in terms of PERVR
- P: has; is a source of lots of data, allows comparison of trends/ patterns between groups over time, state holds power to get data that sociologists cannot, high response rate. lacks; the stats are made for Govt use - not sociologists' - may not offer vital sociological data, definitions used may be different (e.g. truancy) + change over time,
- E: has, compared to other methods
- R: has, standardised procedure, uses a standardised measuring instrument. lacks, occasional random errors in filling out the forms/ in coding
- V: there can be a 'dark figure' of unrecorded data which skews the V of OS. e.g. some births, marriages go unrecorded
- R: has, OS like the Census are taken by the whole population, due to big budget it has a large sample size
37
outline official statistics
- OS are produced by the gov/ official bodies
- they are a secondary source
- the yearly UK Census is a major source of OS
- OS are collected for policy-making
- there are also non-official statistics made by non-state organisations - e.g. by charities
37
outline official statistic's Theoretical perspectives from Positivists + Interpretivists
Positivists:
- like: 'OS are social facts', are objective, reliable, representative due to large scale - often covers the whole population, quantitative, can identify patterns, test hypotheses
Interpretivists:
- dislike: invalid as OS are socially constructed - they represent labels attached to people - e.g. OS on mentally ill people reflect those who get a diagnosis, which isnt everyone - OS don't reflect a 'real rate'
38
outline official statistic's Theoretical perspectives from Marxists + Feminists
Marxists:
- OS arent objective facts, they reflect the interests of the ruling class
- OS perform an ideological function - part of Althusser's ISA - they distort reality to maintain the capitalist power - e.g. definition of unemployment is redefined to make figures appear lower than they are - e.g. doesnt count those in part time/ temporary/ insecure employment
- the definitions change; e.g. the definition of unemployment is changed to reduce the official numbers of unemployed
Feminists:
- state creation of OS legitimises gender inequality - e.g. there are few stats on women's unpaid domestic labour - underestimating w's economic contribution
39
define hard statistics
- hard statistics = reliable + valid data taken from official or organisational bodies
- HS are created from registration data
- there is little dispute over the categories used to collect data - e.g. death, divorce
39
define soft statistics
- soft statistics = data that is difficult to measure as its people's opinions or feelings
- reflects a picture of administrative agencies, not a real world picture
- SS neglect a dark figure of unrecorded cases - e.g. unreported incidents of racism in school
40
define rapport
- rapport = a relationship built between the researcher and the participant(s)
- allows research to be more valid and in depth
41
outline 'going native'
- 'going native' refers to a danger of participation observation where one over-identifies with the group and forms a bias
- they have stopped being an objective observer and have become a member of the group
41
outline relationship to education for RM analysis
- the research group may have a more positive or negative relationship with education
- how will this impact the findings
- how will the method interact with this issue
- e.g. ethnic minorities/ WC may have a negative relationship with education
42
what is a longitudinal study
- a study conducted throughout a long period of time
42
outline content analysis
- content analysis is a method for quantifying content - esp from mass media
- 2 types: formal content analysis + thematic analysis
43
outline the 2 types of content analysis
- 2 types: formal content analysis + thematic content analysis
- formal CA: produces quant data from qual by categorising and counting. positivists (objectivity + representativeness) and feminists like this
- thematic CA: a qual analysis of media content used by Ints + feminists. aims to reveal underlying meanings to uncover the author’s bias
44
outline positivism and interpretivism
- the theoretical issues that affects a sociologists choice of research method also includes their methodological perspective
- interpretivists: prefers qualitative data - e.g. unstructured interviews
- positivists: prefers quantitative methods - e.g. structured questionnaires
44
outline 6 practical issues of laboratory experiments
1) open systems: Keat + Urry argue that LE are only suitable for studying closed systems where variables can be controlled - society is an open system - impossible to identify + control all variables
2) inds are complex, so its impossible to match members between control + experimental group
3) LE cant be used to study events in the past as we cant control past variables
4) small samples: LE can only study small groups - harder to investigate large scale social phenomena
5) Hawthorne effect: LE are in an artificial environment - any behaviour may be artificial - esp if an overt LE
6) expectancy effect: form of experimenter bias - what they expect to happen may affect outcome - could be a conscious/ unconscious treatment of Ps affecting their response
45
outline the reliability of lab experiments
- positivists see LE as highly reliable in 3 ways:
1) the original experimenter can control the conditions + specify the precise steps followed int eh OG experiment - easily repeatable
2) produces quantitative data - results of re-run experiments can be easily compared to OG
3) very detached + objective method - experimenters feelings have no effect on the conduct/ outcome of the experiment
45
outline 2 ethical issues of laboratory experiments
1) informed consent is required for subjects - but can lead to validity issues
2) harm to subjects: research shouldn't harm subjects - but some minor/ temporary harm may be justified if it has social benefit
46
outline the practicality of questionnaires
strengths:
- easy, cheap + quick to send off
- accessible to all
- data is easily quantifiable to identify trends
- no need to train interviewers
- cheap + quick way to gather large amounts of data from many people regardless of geography
weaknesses:
- low response rate on postal
- inflexible: cant ask follow up Qs/ explore new areas of interest
- data is limited + superficial - most are unlikely to complete long questionnaires
- Q are snapshots (fails to capture changes in attitudes)
- may need incentives, e.g. entry to prize draw, to get answers - adds to cost
46
outline theoretical perspectives for lab experiments
- Pos: favour it due to reliable nature, Int dont due to lab experiments search for causes
- Ints: disagree w/ cause and effect (our behaviour isnt caused by external forces, so cant be explained through C+E)
47
outline the practicality of participant observations
- P: lacks, time-consuming, must be trained, issue of access, hard to quantify large amounts of qual data. BUT, PO may be the only option for access - e.g. deviant people suspicious of RM like interviews, first-hand experience provides great insight (verstehen), its flexible (can enter the research open-mindedly + research Qs when new situations arise)
