Research Questions

Question 1

How can research questions be generated?

Answer 1

• Identify gaps/weaknesses in the literature
• Expand study to a new population, set of materials, setting, etc.
• Apply different outcome measure
• Assess social validity of the research
• Use state-of-the-art testing and analytical approach

Question 2

What is the role of theory in the development of research questions?

Answer 2

• Motivates/provides a framework for the current experiment
• Organizes, explains, and accounts for data
• Describes relationships among concepts to explain a phenomenon

Question 3

How can theory and data relate to research?

Answer 3

• Data-driven research: reasoning from the data to the general theory via induction
• Theory-driven research: reasoning from a general theory to the data via deduction

Question 4

How should theories be evaluated?

Answer 4

1. Comprehensiveness
2. Precision & Testability
3. Parsimony
4. Heuristic value

Question 5

Describe comprehensiveness of theory.

Answer 5

• Broad enough to account for as much data as possible
• If there are data relevant to a theory that it can account for: 1) adapt the theory to account for the new data OR 2) develop a new theory that incorporates the new data

Question 6

Describe precision & testability of theory.

Answer 6

• A good theory should have concepts that are clearly and explicitly defined
• Should contain rational, logically-related statements
• Should have an empirically testable hypothesis
• Beware of omnipotent theories

Question 7

What are omnipotent theories?

Answer 7

• Theories that are so powerful, general, or flexible that they account for everything
• So, not testable/falsifiable
• Must tread carefully between explaining a lot of data and too much

Question 8

What is a “Strawman argument?”

Answer 8

-Someone who sets up a counter argument to a hypothesis that cannot possibly be true

Question 9

Describe parsimony of theory.

Answer 9

• All things being equal, the simplest explanation tends to be the best
• Occam’s razor: the explanation of any phenomena should make as few assumptions as possible

Question 10

Describe heuristic value of theory.

Answer 10

• Makes predictions (basic or applied), generates new knowledge, stimulates future research
• Makes general predictions doesn’t describe EVERY data point

Question 11

What should be taken into consideration when narrowing down a research question?

Answer 11

• Types of research that might be conducted
• Whether you can practically conduct them
• Crafting the alternatives and the logic (avoiding a “strawman” hypothesis)

Question 12

What are 4 main classifications of research?

Answer 12

• Quantitative
• Qualitative
• Empirical
• Non-empirical

Question 13

What is quantitative research?

Answer 13

• Numerical data to which statistics can be applied
• Quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, etc.
• Generalize results from a sample to a population
• Methods, including surveys, structured interviews/observations, systematic experiments

Question 14

What is qualitative research?

Answer 14

• Primarily exploratory: aim to reveal underlying reasons, opinions, motives, trends
• Often used to generate hypotheses to be tested in subsequent quantitative research
• Methods include unstructured/semi-structured techniques, verbal measures
• EX: focus groups, individual interviews, observations, fieldwork
• Sample size may be small

Question 15

What is empirical research?

Answer 15

• Gathering new information through observations/materials

- Can be experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-experimental/observational

Question 16

What is non-empirical research?

Answer 16

-Uses existing information in a research study

Question 17

What does PICO stand for?

Answer 17

• P = population
• I = intervention, issue
• C = comparison/alternative
• O = outcome

Question 18

What is a research hypothesis?

Answer 18

• Formal statement of the predicted outcome, includes IV/DV/population
• Null Hypothesis (H0)
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1)
• Can be directional or non-directional

Question 19

Describe characteristics of well-formed hypotheses.

Answer 19

1. Constructs are operationalized
2. Measures are valid
3. Measures are reliable

Question 20

Describe how constructs are operationalized.

Answer 20

• Precise, specific IV and DV

- General statement becomes specific

Question 21

Describe measure validity.

Answer 21

• How accurately a measure represents the knowledge/skill/trait you aim to assess
• Can be empirical or non-empirical

Question 22

What are the types of non-empirical validity?

Answer 22

• Face validity

- Content validity

Question 23

What are the types of empirical validity?

Answer 23

• Construct validity: convergent validity, divergent/discriminant validity
• Criterion validity: concurrent validity, predictive validity

Question 24

Describe measure reliability.

Answer 24

• Consistency of measurement
• Inter-observer reliability
• Test-retest reliability
• Parallel-forms reliability
• Split-half reliability

Question 25

What is the QALMRI framework?

Answer 25

- Question - Alternative - Logic - Method - Results - Inferences

Question 26

Describe Q of QALMRI.

Answer 26

- Broad: general topic, often addressed in the first paragraph of the introduction - Specific: questions to be addressed in the paper, often addressed in the last 2 paragraphs of the introduction

Question 27

Describe A of QALMRI.

Answer 27

- 2+ alternative answers to the specific questions - Explain why both answers are plausible - Can be directional or non-directional

Question 28

Describe L of QALMRI.

Answer 28

- How the experiment design permits distinguishing among alternatives - Towards the end of the introduction - Structure: If H1 is correct, when the IV is manipulated, DV should change in X way.

Question 29

Describe R of QALMRI.

Answer 29

-What was the outcome

Question 30

Describe I of QALMRI.

Answer 30

-What the results mean

Question 31

Describe the general structure of the introduction.

Answer 31

- What is the broad question of focus? - What work has been done to answer it? - What is the gap in the literature? - How will this study address that gap? (specifically stating the QAL)

Question 32

Describe the first paragraph of the introduction.

Answer 32

- Start off with a broad statement of the general topic - First sentence should be something any informed reader (not experts) can understand - Highlight "why you care" - Should be centered around ideas, not specific studies (describe the results that motivate the study, don't ignore research just because it doesn't support your hypothesis, discuss most important papers in depth)

Question 33

Describe the last paragraph of the introduction.

Answer 33

- End with a summary of what your study is about and what you're actually doing - Provide a lead-in to what you're doing in the study (i.e. QAL)

Question 34

What should an introduction avoid?

Answer 34

- Jargon - Voice and self-reference - Gender bias - Tense - Language-bias - Common grammar errors and usage - Focusing on researchers more than findings - Laundry list of studies (don't just list all the results)