Resource security notes from online lessons Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
What factors effect water supply?
A
Topography - Long narrow valley -Small surface area- less evaporation
Reliable/High water flow- catchment area
Geology (impermeable)-
Catchment area
Climate - sufficient rainfal
2
Q
What are the impacts of reservoirs?
A
Downstream- less sediment to deltas- more coastal erosion, less soil fertility/ecosystems
Micro climates- higher rainfall over reservoir lower ground
Floodland-
Flood control
Stored water supplies/miscellaneous benefits
Sedimentation rescues capacity
Micriclimate
Alters river regime downstream:changes flow; habitat change; landform change
3
Q
Aquifer:
A
: area of porous rock saturated with water. Form in sedimentary basins with layers of permeable and impermeable rock, can be confined or unconfin
4
Q
What are the impacts of over-abstraction?
A
Subsidence
Sinking of water table: loss of wetland; increasing unreliability of rivers
Salt water intrusion
Drying of soils
Human: impacts on agriculture, pumping costs etc.
5
Q
What is water surplus:
A
Areas where there is more than sufficient water available to meet human need
6
Q
Why is global demand for water rising?
A
Population increase and economic development
7
Q
Water security:
A
capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for: sustaining livelihoods; human well-being and socio-economic development; ensuring protection against waterborne pollution or water-related disasters; preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability
8
Q
Water stress:
A
– annual supply of water per person is less than 1,700m3. Demand for water has exceeded the amount of water available or poor quality water has restricted the amount available.
9
Q
What is Water scarcity and give an example of where this takes places?
A
Below 1,000m3/per person/year
Northern africa and middle east
10
Q
What is Absolute water scarcity and give an example of where this takes places?
A
Below 500m3/per person/year
Northern Africa and middle east
11
Q
What is physical scarcity and give an example of where this takes places?
A
More than 75% of river flows being used/natures provisions of water is insufficient to meet populations needs. Less than 500mm of rainfall annually
Northern Africa and middle east and central Asia
12
Q
What is economic scarcity and give an example of where this takes places?
A
Human and financial factors limit water use to less than 25% of river flow
Sub saharan african
Southern Asia
South America
13
Q
What characteristics allow for water surplus?
A
Low evaporation rates
Infrastructure to meet needs
14
Q
What are the physical factors that affect water supply?
give an example for each
A
Climatic:
- Precipitation levels
- Evaporation rates
Geological
- Permeability of rocks
Drainage
- Capacity and size of drainage basin system
15
Q
What are the human factors that affect water supply?
A
Demand levels (human activities) Environmental controls (levels of pollution/human activities) Management systems - who sells water
16
Q
Name some successful transboundary agreements?
A
Mekong River Commission Jordan River (israel and Jordan) Indus River Commissions 1999 Nile River Basin Agreements 1987 Syria and Turkey agreement
17
Q
What is water diversion?
A
Changing the course of the river so it flows to a different area
18
Q
Why was the water diverted?
Aral Sea
A
For use in the soviet union
To create cotton farms
19
Q
What were the environmental impacts in the Aral Sea?
A
In the desert ½ the water evaporates
Poisonous and deadly chemicals used
The sea has dried up completely
The water left is full of chemicals and salt
Only 4 of of 38 types of fish are left
So much salt in ground- water pipes have to be built above ground.
The whole region is seeing an increase in high temperatures
20
Q
What were the economic impacts in the Aral Sea?
A
The local people rely on the cotton for jobs
Local fishermen cannot sell to local factories
21
Q
What were the human welfare impacts in the Aral Sea?
A
One village has water for 25 minutes a day Not enough water for villagers No food for villagers Fishing villages no longer by water Docks 50km from the water edge
22
Q
What were the supply problems in the Aral Sea?
A
Not enough water to the local people
People with typhoid has gone up 29 x
15,000 people has left the village
Food supplies have gone down
Poor health
83% of children have a illness - chemicals affecting breast milk
More premature baby and more miscarriages
23
Q
What is water transfer?
A
Moving water areas of surplus to area of shortage, usually pumped through pipes, channels, canals and aqueducts
24
Q
What is the South-to-North water transfer project?
A
Large scale water transfer scheme in china
25
In the South-to-North water transfer project how much water is transferred and where to?
It transfers 45 billion m3 (44.8) of water per year north from the Yangtze river to the Yellow river and provides water to cities where there isn’t enough e.g. Beijing and Tianjin in the arid north.
26
How much did the South-to-North water transfer project cost?
Costs $62 billion
27
What are 3 diversion routes?
Three diversion routes: eastern (2013= Yangtze to Shandong province); central (2014 Danjiangkou on Han river via Henan/Hebei provinces to Beijing) and western (incomplete 2050 Yangtze > NW China)
28
Why is the South-to-North water transfer project needed?
To resolve water shortages:
To allow for continuing development
- China’s economic growth /industrialisation: has transformed fertile farmland in Southern China into industrial zones
- the drier North has had to grow more food to compensate
- high population density in North China Plain (600 mil) > water deficits; low aquifers/falling water table (approx -1.5m a year)
- Pollution and over-abstraction of major rivers.
29
What are the environmental impacts of the South-to-North water transfer project
- The land was flooded to create dam and destruction of habitats
- Decreased velocity of river down stream,
- Increases algal blooms
- reduced fresh water flow
- Wetlands around the delta > drier and drylands in the north > wetter affecting the habitats and biodiversity/endemic species
- Reduction in sediment downstream is accelerating coastal erosion
- Droughts in the South
30
What are the economic impacts of the South-to-North water transfer project
$62 billion
Increased transport on some areas (eastern route) > may counteract water quality improvements
Increased water supply for industrialisation/development
31
What are the human welfare impacts of the South-to-North water transfer project?
300, 000 people displaced by construction of Danjiangkou dam
| Due to cost of project water is expensive > inequality of access
32
Water storage:
construction of dams and reservoirs storing water in times of surplus for use in times of deficit; regulate river flow; maintain habitats and prevent flooding downstream.
CASE STUDY: The Aswan High Dam and Lake Nasser.
33
Water catchment:
Collecting water for use (rainwater storage).
CASE STUDY: Bermuda (stepped roof) ; Gansu province China
34
Desalination:
removal of salt from sea water so that it can be used as a water source.
CASE STUDY: Dubai; Israel ‘The Desalination Master Plan’
35
Reverse osmosis:
filtration of seawater at high pressure through a partially permeable membrane.
36
Distillation:
water boiled (heated under high pressure), steam is condensed and collected.
37
What is the Aswan High Dam project?
The scheme aimed to increase economic production by regulating the annual river flooding and providing storage of water for agriculture and later to generate hydroelectric power.
The HEP capacity of the Dam is 2.1 GW in the 1980’s this was providing half of the counties electricity. This has fallen to 1/10 as the population has grown
38
What are the environmental impacts of the Aswan High Dam project?
=Down stream, since the dam was built the annual flood has been stopped and these sediments are held back in the reservoir. Farmers have now had to use fertilisers to grow their crops which is more expensive and have created
indirect environmental impacts
=Coastal erosion has accelerated due to lack of sediment. It is severe in Rosetta and Damietta. Attempts to prevent coastal erosion have been largely unsuccessful
=The sediment deposited in the reservoir is lowering the water storage capacity
=Marine productivity in the Mediterranean has decreased because nutrients that used to flow down from the nile are trapped in the dam
=Water levels have changed
=Algal growing has increased the coat of water and causes anaerobic respiration
39
What are the Economic impacts of the Aswan High Dam project?
100,000 Nubian people had to be resettled in purpose built villages in Sudan and Egypt
The lake created a lot more land for people to farm on.
Created a large fishing industry- 25,000 tonnes per year
40
What are the Human welfare impacts of the Aswan High Dam project?
Health and diseases such as schistosomiasis live in freshwater and standing standing water. The canals are a breeding ground for snails carrying the parasite (poor sanitation is also a large factor)
The prevalence was more than 40% during the pre-dam period to less than 2% in 2010.
41
What Domestic use strategies can be put in place to make water use more sustainable?
=Water meters
=People can take showers instead of baths water-efficient shower heads
=The amount of water used to flush the toilet can be reduced
=Modern appliances such as water-efficient washing machines and dishwashers use less water.
=Home-owners and water supply companies can fix leaks to minimize waste.
42
How are Domestic use strategies effective?
=Small changes (easier to comply) and large cumulative effect
=Can have economic benefits - e.g. water meter to lower water bill
43
How are Domestic use strategies ineffective?
=Older homes are not fitted with new water meters.
=Voluntary- 57% of uk homes do not have a water meter
=Conflict between domestic strategies and corporate wastage/leakage
=Disincentives vs incentives (Bangalore vs Australia)
Attitudes towards and resultant success of water saving
44
What Agriculture use strategies can be put in place to make water use more sustainable?
- Farmers can install drip pipes that direct water to exactly where it's needed, and collect stormwater for irrigation.
- Farmers can also change their practices, e.g. by watering crops early in the morning to reduce water loss through evapotranspiration, or by contour ploughing (ploughing across a slope) to reduce runoff. these charge users for the exact amount of water they use, so they encourage
45
How are agricultural use strategies effective and ineffective?
=Inequality of access as expensive
=Need to reduce food waste with consumers to fully reduce agricultural water consumption
=More effective to control types of product then water consumption
=Increasing population pressure may increase agricultural usage despite new tech
46
Coca Cola what happened in 2000?
Hindustan Coca Cola subsidiary granted permission to open a factor in Plachimada
6 months later local villages report increased water pollution and difficulty accessing agricultural water supplies
47
Coca Cola what happened in 2002?
Protests begin - Anti Coca Cola-peoples struggle committee
48
Coca Cola what happened in 2003?
Perumatty Panchayat revoke Coca Cola's license due to ‘ excessive exploitation of the groundwater by the company, environmental problems due to presence of hazardous and toxic substances in wastes emitted by the company, and a scarcity in drinking water’
Coca Cola approaches Kerala high court which sides against the Panchayat
49
Coca Cola what happened in between 2003-2005?
legal battles continue
Nov 05 - Plachimada declared ‘over-exploited’ preventing further commercial extraction under the Kerala Groundwater Act
50
Coca Cola what happened in 2006?
- Coca Cola begins to look for new places to locate - not further activity.
51
What were the environmental impacts of Coca Cola’s operations in Kerala?
=Well’s empty > villages walk longer distances to collect water
=Water tables decreased from approx. 12 >35m below ground level > groundwater quality declines (excess levels of magnesium and calcium)> stomach-aches reported from drinking water
=Irrigation wells dried up > 40% reduction in harvests > economic losses
=Sludge from plants filtering and bottle cleaning process dumped on nearby fields/banks of irrigation canals > water/fields contaminated by high levels of cadmium > those in direct contact with the sludge reported rashes and skin infections; furthermore, the crop was damage
52
What has Coca Cola done to reduce its impact on water supplies?
=Focused on water sustainability: In 2006, it needs 3.66 litre of water to produce one litre of soft drink and in
=2010, 2.5 litres of water is used for production
=Created rainwater harvesting structures/restoration ponds to replenish used groundwater.
53
What happened during the Yemen Civil war?
ailure of political transition following the Arab Spring uprising and ousting of authoritarian president Saleh in 2011. New president Hadi struggled to maintain power due to continued loyalty to Salah; seperatist movements and Jihadists. The Houthi movement (originally championed Shia muslim minority but gained many Yemenis support as disillusioned with the transition of power) took control of Northern Yemen and eventually the capital Sanaa forcing Hadi to flee 2015. Iran, Suadi Arabia and eight other mainly SUnni Arab states then retaliated to perceived Shia power - military stalemate continues, IS have also seized territory in the chaos.
§
54
What are the impacts of water shortages?
50% of the population struggle to access clean water
2017 - 1.3 million infected and 2800+ died of cholera (UNICEF)
Wells drilled deeper
Lack of education for girls - fetching water
Old Yemeni ministry figure estimated 4000 killed in violent disputes over land and water a year
55
how many people do not have access to clean water?
13 million (50%)
56
How many people are dependant on foreign aid?
15.7 million
57
how much of the population live in rural areas?
70%
58
Yemen what happened in 2002?
2002 law requiring landowners to have licenses to drill and maintain wells (concern from farmers that gov. Trying to control their water extraction);
59
Yemen what happened in 2009?
2009 restriction in Qat cultivation (farmers concerned would lose their main/only source of income and refused limits).
60
How has water been used in the Yemen civil war?
main/only source of income and refused limits).
Water use as a strategic tactic: both Houthi and Saudi forces have reportedly blocked deliveries of aid; Feb 2016 reports that Saudi planes destroyed a reservoir (water for 30, 000). 2016 Houthis block vital goods flow into Taizz city.
61
TIGRIS - EUPHRATES
Who shares the transboundary waters? Who controls the headwaters?
Turkey (headwaters), Syria, Iraq (Tigris = Iran)
62
TIGRIS - EUPHRATES
What is the GAP project?
Southeastern Anatolia Project - 22 dams and 19 HEP projects to promote socio economic development in Turkey.
63
TIGRIS - EUPHRATES
How has the GAP project resulted in conflict?
=Will reduce Syria’s share of the Euphrates by 80% (Syria has an agriculture based economy) - electrical output of Syria’s Tabqa Dam down approx. 12%
=Will reduce Iraq’s share of the Euphrates by 40% - could lose irrigation water to 1 million hectares
=N.b. in 1990 when Turkey began filling the Ataturk Dam Reservoir it completely blocked the flow of the river for one month - Iraq threatened to bomb the dam.
=Concerns re impact on water quality particularly as Syria and Iraq try to develop their own supplies - increase salinity/pollution
=Turkey argues that dams will control variations in flow and avoid floods for downstream nations
64
TIGRIS - EUPHRATES
What transboundary agreements have been made to manage the Tigris-Euphrates equitably?
1987 - Turkey and Syria agreement to guarantee a minimum flow of the Euphrates to 500m3/sec
1990 - Syria and Iraq- Syria agrees to share the Euphrates water with Iraq (58%) and Syria (42%)
65
TIGRIS - EUPHRATES
Have current agreements been successful?
=Most negotiations only between Turkey and Syria - Iraq not often involved.
=Turkey has the most geographical and military power > little incentive to reach agreement
=Most decisions on water management in Turkey made unilaterally
=No plan in place for co-management between all three governments
=Attempts to agree Memorandums of Understanding in 2009 failed
=Further decreases in rainfall predicted
66
Name two methods to manage water consumption.
Domestic: behavioural (showers not baths etc); technological (dual flush toilet; water meters)
Agricultural: behavioural (changing farming practices - contour plough; water in morning); technological (drip-feed irrigation; soaker hoses)
67
Give three issues with strategies to manage water consumption. (Evaluate their success).
Domestic-
Lack of uptake where voluntary - e.g. 57% of UK homes do not have a water meter
Conflict between domestic strategies and corporate wastage/leakage
Disincentives vs incentives (Bangalore vs Australia)
Attitudes towards and resultant success vary with perceived levels of water supply and stress
68
Give three issues with strategies to manage water consumption. (Evaluate their success).
Agricultural-
Inequality of access as expensive
Need to reduce food waste with consumers to fully reduce agricultural water consumption
More effective to control types of product then water consumption
Increasing population pressure may increase agricultural usage despite new tech
69
What are the four strategies to increase water supply?
```
Water storage -
Desalination
Water transfer
Diversion
Water catchment
```
70
Outline three environmental impacts of the Aswan High Dam.
Coastal erosion accelerated (Rosetta and Damietta promontories) > coastal protection built
Lack of nutrients to the Mediterranean > marine productivity dropped > decline in Sardines catch off the Egyptian coast.
Change in ecosystem > slower flow> increase in snails > Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia)
71
Give two physical factors that control water supply.
Climate
geology
Draignage basin sink
72
Give an environmental impact of desalination.
Intensive energy usage
enhanced greenhouse effect if fossil fuels used; brine production
mpacts on surrounding ecosystems
73
What impacts have Coca Cola’s activities had on Kerala?
Water tables decreased (- 23m); groundwater quality declines (excess levels of magnesium and calcium); irrigation wells dried up > 40% reduction in harvests; sludge contaminated water/fields with cadmium > health impacts
74
What are the four threats to Antarctica?
Climate change
Fishing and whaling
Mining
Tourism
75
Water futures:
Technological
Develop technologies to reduce or increase supply
Osmotic distillation/ advanced membrane technology/ graphene oxide sieves/electrodialysis- increase energy efficiency/ decrease cost of desalination
Saltwater greenhouse technology
Small scale local technology: solar stills; sand dams
Reducing water waste- nanotechnology to purify polluted supplies ; smart network technologies
76
Water futures:
Economic
Further redistribution of water: shipping; management; diversion; virtual water trade
Increasing development > reduced economic scarcity
77
Water futures:
Environmental
Impact of climate change
Integrated water catchment management
Need to balance human water use with needs of aquatic ecosystems and dependent species
78
What is a resource frontier? Give an example.
A place with abundant natural resources exploited for the first time
Often previously unexplored as geographically remote or difficult to access > as other more accessible resources are depleted/technological development/increased demand resource frontiers are becoming more economically viable and more likely to be developed
Examples: North Sea oil reserves in NE Scotland; Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (N. Alaska)
79
Give three sustainable methods to improve water availability.
Domestic: behavioural (showers not baths etc); technological (dual flush toilet; water meters)
Agricultural: behavioural (changing farming practices - contour plough; water in morning); technological (drip-feed irrigation; soaker hoses)
80
What is the difference between conventional and unconventional resources?
Conventional: petroleum or crude oil and raw materials extracted from the ground by conventional means - w.g. Primary, secondary and tertiary recovery
Unconventional: low permeability/low porosity reserves which require enhanced recovery techniques e.g. fracture stimulation (shale gas); high pressure drainage (tar sands)
81
How does the IMF cause inequality?
Voting power based on member countries monetary contribution - EU higher voting power
Staff based in USA/ always had a European director
Conditions attached to loans may exacerbate
82
Describe the distribution of physical and economic water scarcity.
Physical: more than 75% of water flows used - arid regions e.g. Middle East and North Africa; Central Asia and parts of the Indian Subcontinent.
Economic: human/financial factors limit water use to less than 25% of river flows - poorest regions e.g. Sub-saharan Africa; South America; South Asia; inequality of provision due to over abstraction upstream e.g. Colorado river USA
83
What is the ‘Day Zero’ campaign?
Day zero marked the start of level 7 water restrictions - when municipal water supply would be shut off to 75% of homes and people would have to queue at 200 water collection points to collect their daily ration of 25 litres per person per day (exceptions = informal settlements with communal taps; economically essential manufacturing; health centres and initially schools).
84
What water saving measures were put in place?
What water saving measures were put in place?
Restrictions on water use - with increasing levels - punishments included publishing names of water users; installing water management devices; water tariffs
Supply augmentation - buying water from the Moteno reservoir and Atlantis aquifer; constructing desalination plants
Seeking alternative supplies
Education campaigns
85
How successful was it? How can you evidence this?
Previous restrictions imposed throughout 2015-18 had been insufficient and largely ignored (confusion over level 5 restrictions had led to an increase in water use)
Biggest consumer response followed media frenzy and panic - Capetonians responded more strongly to the threat of waterless taps than to increasing levels of water restrictions - ‘fear mongering’ was the most successful strategy!
Day zero was called off due to reduced water consumption and heavy rainfall - dam capacity has now reached 75%
86
Long term water strategies involving a variety of methods. E.g. Jordan Water Strategy in Jordan 1998-2025.
What are the successes?
Increasing water security (90% og jordans residents have mains water access)
Strategies such as increases rainwater catchment help increase reliability
87
Long term water strategies involving a variety of methods. E.g. Jordan Water Strategy in Jordan 1998-2025.
What are the weaknesses?
Water supply remains infrequent and groundwater reserves are over exploited
88
Alterations to agricultural water use.
What are the successes?
Israel treats 86% of domestic waste water and recycles it for agricultural use, about 55% of the total water used for agriculture > sustainable use.
Higher water costs > encourages use of agricultural technology to reduce water use and maintain crop yields eg. drip irrigation and development of low water use crops.
Allows agriculture to continue in a sustainable manner.
89
Alterations to agricultural water use.
What are the weaknesses?
Recycling wastewater is expensive (as require treatment, storage and distribution) and energy intensive > while wastewater is subsidised in israel much of this cost is passed on to consumers. Irrigation prices in Israel are some of the highest in the world- some farmers have struggled
90
Water rationing
What are the successes?
Successfully reduced water usage (eg. only pumps water to homes 3-5 hours twice a week)
91
Water rationing
What are the weaknesses?
Requires enforcement and compliance
92
Dam construction
What are the successes?
Dams and reservoirs supply 90m3 of water to jordan each year
Examples such as the Wahdah Dam has helped to improve cooperation between jordan and syria
93
Dam construction
What are the weaknesses?
Diversion has resulted in the river jordan losing 95% of its original flow
94
Increased investment in desalination
What are the successes?
Around 50% of Israel's drinking water is from desalination (85% of potable water to municipal areas)
Has allowed water allocations to increase > increased use for industry/agriculture possible
Becoming cheaper and more energy efficient - increasing cost effective
95
Increased investment in desalination
What are the weaknesses?
Some areas of Israel far from desalination plants so difficult to transport
Water cost has risen (privatised may cause increased disparity of access)
Focus on desalination rather than treatment of natural water supplies
Unknown impacts of open ocean intake on sea level/impact of brine
96
Transboundary agreements: Joint Water committee 1995 between Israel and the West bank.
What are the successes?
Aims to improve water supply and wastewater treatment in the west bank
97
Transboundary agreements: Joint Water committee 1995 between Israel and the West bank.
What are the weaknesses?
Ongoing tensions means little has been achieved
Arguable institutionalises inequality - Israel controls
water resources in Palestine whilst vetoing any Palestinian projects to improve water supplies
98
Red sea Dead sea water convergence project (Israel, Jordan and West Bank). Aims to build tunnels and pipelines to transfer after from the Red Sea to the Dead sea.
What are the successes?
Source of water after desalination for Amman and Dead Sea Region
Could generate HEP for use in the area/offset desalination energy use > human welfare benefits
Will reduce the shrinking of the Dead sea (-30% past 20 years) and associated impacts: declining shoreline > steeper slopes and earthquake associated landslides; sinkholes; damage to ecosystems.
Creation of strategically important shared infrastructure with mutual benefits > may reinforce and support ongoing regional cooperation
99
Red sea Dead sea water convergence project (Israel, Jordan and West Bank). Aims to build tunnels and pipelines to transfer after from the Red Sea to the Dead sea.
What are the weaknesses?
Expensive (up to $10 billion) and will take approx 20 years to complete (slow/cost effective?)
Unknown environmental impacts > impact on coral reefs in Red Sea and Dead sea ecosystems
Most the infrastructure will be in Jordan > risk of non-cooperative interventions
Contamination of aquifers due to failure of the saltwater conveyance is possible
100
Primary energy
iResources used in their natural form to produce power e.g. wood; water turning a water wheel; crude oil.
101
Secondary energy
resources converted from primary energy into a new form e.g. petrol; electricity; charcoal
102
Conventional oil production
petroleum or crude oil and raw materials extracted from the ground by conventional means - w.g. Primary, secondary and tertiary recovery
103
Unconventional oil production
low permeability/low porosity reserves which require enhanced recovery techniques e.g. fracture stimulation (shale gas); high pressure drainage (tar sands)
104
Peak oil
point of greatest production of a reserve (also when cheapest as greatest supply and most accessible)
105
Flow resources
resources that are renewable and replaced within a sufficiently short time span to be relevant to decision makers e.g. freshwater; solar (can be a critical flow if require management as overuse can deplete them).
106
Stock resources
non-renewable can be permanently used up as have a finite/fixed supply (millions of years to form/quantity in amounts not rates) e.g. fossil fuels
107
Oil
Producers/ exporters
Middle East
Russia
Usa
108
Oil
Consumers/ importers
Usa
China
Japan
109
Oil
What factors control patterns of trade? - including physical geography factors.
```
Geological factors
porous/permeable rocks
Layer of impermeable cap rock
High underground temperatures 110+
90-160 oil window
Climate/accessibility
large/shallow reservoirs
Oil beneath permafrost /deep water
Geopolitics
Economics
Unconventional reserves
```
110
Coal
Producers/ exporters
China
| India
111
Coal
Consumers/ importers
China
| Development
112
Coal
What factors control patterns of trade? - including physical geography factors.
```
Geological factors:
Sedimentary rocks- peatifiction> coalification (heat/pressure)
Varying qualities dependent on carbon concentration and resultant energy density:
Anthracite - 86-98% pure carbon
Bituminous- 70-86%
Sub- Bituminous 70-76%
Lignite 65=70%
Accessibility
Environmental concerns
Transport
```
113
Natural gas
Producers/ exporters
```
Russia
Usa
Qatar
Iran
Canada
```
114
Natural gas
Consumers/ importers
Iran
China
Japan
Canada
115
Natural gas
What factors control patterns of trade? - including physical geography factors.
```
Geological factors
porous/permeable rocks
Layer of impermeable cap rock
High underground temperatures 160+
Distribution:
Infrastructure (pipelines)
Liquified natural gas
Unconventional resources
```
116
Wind
What factors control patterns of trade? - including physical geography factors.
Wind speed (min 7-10 mph > Max 50-80mph)
Greater density of air
Prevailing winds are optimum
117
Solar
What factors control patterns of trade? - including physical geography factors.
Most productive in tropical and subtropical area
Snowfall/frequent fog/pollution/rainfall/wind > negatively impact efficiency
More productive at lower air densities as scatters less sunlight (mountain vs sea level)
118
HEP
What factors control patterns of trade? - including physical geography factors.
Drainage basin: power generated = head stream (height water falls) x flo speed x gravity
119
What is a chokepoint?
A narrow passageway restricting traffic
120
Which two choke points are of greatest concern with regards to oil trade?
Strait of hormuz
| Malacca straits
121
Why is the Strait of Hormuz a concern?
In 2018, 21% of the global petroleum liquids passed though this point.
There are limited options to bypass this route.
Poor geopolitical relationships between the western World and `iran
122
What other geopolitical risks are there to oil supply?
```
War is threat
Pirates in the straits
Running out in some areas so exploiting others
OPEC control the prices
Europe depended on russia
Terrorism treats
```
123
Why is energy consumption stabilising in HICS?
Increasing energy efficiency
- Increasing awareness of environmental issues
High standards of living
Deindustrilation and out sourcing
124
Why Is energy use rapidly increasing in emerging economies?
Industrialization
Growing population
Rapid urbanisation
Increased standard of living
125
Mali
Factors explaining the energy mix
Little use for electricity except in urban areas/predominantly rural - major energy use cooking
Cannot afford to develop fossil fuel reserves (currently import)
HEP from Felou project on the Senegal river
126
Factors explaining the energy mix
Nigeria
High biofuel use (mainly in rural areas (little electricity)
Low precipitation > low HEP
LIC > difficulty developing HEP supplies and other renewables
Oil > large local oil reserves (increasingly developed by TNCs)
127
Factors explaining the energy mix
Iceland
Only use oil for transport
Physical geography: provides abundant geothermal energy (available); mountainous conditions/abundant water supply > HEP
HIC with low population can afford to develop HEP/Geothermal
128
Factors explaining the energy mix
France
Lack of own fossil fuel reserves have to import
Physical conditions suitable for nuclear - low tectonic hazard; large rivers for cooling
Political focus on nuclear (following OPEC oil embargo focus on energy security)/ dependence makes it difficult to reverse this decision despite nuclear concerns elsewhere internationally - inertia
HIC - can afford to develop nuclear
129
Factors explaining the energy mix
UK
Traditional reliance on coal > government prioritised environmental concerns - carbon tax (£23 per tonne of carbon); closure of all coal power stations by 2025; international carbon emissions agreements.
North sea oil/gas > dash for gas following privatisation of UK electricity industry in 1990s > BUT running out
Nuclear - public concern following nuclear disasters e.g. Chernobyl 1986 slowed new commissions; aging infrastructure most existing decommissioned by 2030 (some new plants being developed)
Growing shift towards renewables
130
What factors affect a country’s energy mix?
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Availability
Interia
Government policy
Geopolitics
Level of development
Physical conditions
Populations
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Availability of energy resources within a country (physical and local conditions); inertia; government energy policies (diversity of energy mix); geopolitics; level of development (economic and technological); population; income/wealth
131
How does energy promote globalisation?
New natural gas pipelines and interconnected further link countries (technological advances); necessity of trade due to uneven distribution of energy supplies; International climate change policy - unified global framework for energy use; transfer of technology (energy efficiency); growing use of TNCs to exploit energy
132
What are the competing national interests in energy supply?
Price ( vulnerable to supply and demand change)
Environment vs Development
Energy security vs dependence
133
What are the opposing views of China’s influence in Africa?
investment in Africa is an example of new-colonialism that uses soft loans (development aid); participation in peacekeeping operations to increase access to and exploitation of Africa’s natural resources.
134
Strategies to increase energy supply
Oil and gas exploration
More resources are becoming economically viable reserves > increasing exploitation of resource frontiers: increasing giving exploration rates to TNCs: development of unconventional reserves
Maersk, Danish TNC - 2015
135
Strategies to increase energy supply
Nuclear power
Long-term; efficient method to improve energy security and decarbonise electricity(to meet international climate agreements) whilst reducing dependence on imports.
Global decrease as old reactors are phased out (UK; Belgium; Germany) and environmental/safety concerns.
Increasing technological developments > small nuclear reactor (rapid installation in brownfield sites)-
UK: while initial opposition to nuclear expansion UK government support since crisis 2006 subsequent energy policies have prioritised nuclear (Scottish government opposition). New developments: Hinkley point C (EDF); Bradwell B (CGN/EDF); Sizewell C (EDF)
136
Strategies to increase energy supply
Development of renewables
Increasing development (global 12.4% 1973 > 14.1% 2014)
Uk energy policy focuses on environmental protection at the expense of energy security. Increasing carbon emissions controls: carbon taxes; carbon price floors and focus on renewables (feed-in-tariffs 2010-19/prestige projects)
137
Ways for domestic energy saving
Use solar/wind power with feed-in tariff
Switch off standby, lights, heating
Use double glazing, energy efficient light bulbs/appliances, condensing boiler, loft insulation, cavity wall insulation, draught proofing.
138
What are the impacts of domestic energy saving?
Poor quality installation reduces impact > how to ensure energy saving methods are being used effectively? Hassle of installing energy efficient measures
‘Rebound effects’ - potential financial savings from energy efficiency leads to increased use of energy.
Many energy saving methods are expensive > inequality of use as many lack finance to pay for up-front cost of measures.
139
What is the future of domestic energy saving?
Billing feedback - consumers informed of the average energy use of a comparable customer
Mortgage eligibility could lead to more lending to buyers of more energy efficient properties
Prevent sale of property with low energy performance
140
Industry saving energy
=Heat recovery systems
=Combined heat and power systems
=Improving efficiency of air conditioning and lighting
=Energy audits must be completed by large businesses
=Climate change levy tax - increases each year
141
transport saving energy
Technology
More fuel efficient vehicles - emissions targets set by EU (40% cut from 2007 levels by 2021
Use of electric and hybrid vehicles lead to 43% energy saving
Automatic ignition switch-off
142
transport saving energy
Methods/design
Aerodynamic cars
| Use more renewable fuels such as bioethanol
143
transport saving energy
Schemes/Government policies
VED based on emissions
Congestion charges, toll roads, park and ride
Car sharing clubs
More efficient driving style - save 10% of fuel
Devices in vehicles to provide feedback on efficiency of a driver’s style which could be tied into insurance premiums
144
Causes of Acid rain
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide released from cars, factories, power stations etc
These gases mix with water in the atmosphere forming acids of sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
These clouds get blown elsewhere and the precipitation is now acidic
145
Consequences of Acid rain
Aquatic environments (streams, lakes and marshes) are affected which can be harmful to fish and other wildlife. The young of species are most vulnerable
As water infiltrates it can leach aluminium from soil which flows into rivers and lakes poisoning them
146
Solutions to acid rain
Catalytic converters in cars - nitrous oxide
Scrubbers (flue gas desulphurisation) in power stations to take out sulphur
Liming - adding lime to lakes, however controversial, constant addition
Renewable energy - coal is high in sulphur content (burn fossil fuels with a lower sulphur content)
147
What is Royal Dutch Shell?
Anglo-dutch oil & gas TNC with headquarters in the Hague,Netherlands.
148
How is Royal Dutch Shell involved in Upstream organisation
Exploration/production and transportation to market of oil and natural gas: (e.g. deep water oil drilling (Gulf of Mexico; Bonga North West field (Nigeria); Malaysia and the Philippines); Natural gas Norway; Russia; Qatar etc)
149
How is Royal Dutch Shell involved in Downstream organisation?
Distribution/marketing; 46 000 retail stations; refineries and petrochemical production (e.g. Nanhai petrochemicals complex China; Shell Eastern petrochemicals Singapore; Shell Geismar Chemical plant USA)
150
How is Royal Dutch Shell involved in Renewables and energy solutions organisation?
power generation (and some renewables (hydrogen/solar/tidal)/decarbonisation technologies > to meet Paris agreement)
151
What type of radiation comes in?
Short wave Ultra violent
152
What do we do with nuclear waste?
Kept underwater to cool & until radiation levels decay - 5-10 years.
Then vitrified into glass blocks and stored in steel; concrete or lead lined containers underground.
Recycled but needs to be financially viable
153
Issues finding sites for disposal/storage of waste:
Physical conditions:
Economically:
Transport:
Socio/political
Physical conditions: geologically stable; 200-1000m deep
Economically:: Expensive; economic dependency of areas on nuclear industry; impacts tourism
Transport: transport links needed
Socio/political: strength of local pressure groups; terrorism
154
Issues associated with nuclear waste disposal:
Long half life - remains very dangerous for a long time.
Groundwater contamination
Very expensive £4 billion
How safe is it for 100,000 years? Future ice age, therefore below any known permafrost. But weight of ice will increase pressure and when released can cause earthquakes.
Terrorism risks
Movement of tectonic plates
Could be dug up by future generations, therefore placed in areas with nothing to encourage settlement
Nuclear waste in salt mine in Lower Saxony moved due to walls collapsing
