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respiratory system Flashcards

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1
Q

what are some non-respiratory functions of the respiratory system?

A

defense against microbes
formation of sound
trapping and dissolving of blood clots
ventilation of the airways contributes to body heat and body water loss

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2
Q

parietal vs visceral pleura

A

parietal- lining of chest wall
visceral- lines the surface of the lungs

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3
Q

conducting vs respiratory zone?

A

conducting zone- dead air space, where the movement of air in and out of the lungs occurs
respiratory zone- where has exchange takes place

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4
Q

what are the opposing forces between the lungs and the chest wall in breathing?

A

lungs have elastic elements- inwards recoil
chest wall has inherent elasticity- recoils outwards
= generation of negative pressure within pleural space called intrapleural pressure

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5
Q

what pressures are occuring during inspiration?

A

1- inspiratory intercostal muscles contract
2- thorax expands
3- intrapleural pressure gets more negative
4- transpulmonary pressure increases from 4 to 7, lungs expand
5- alveolar pressure changes from 0 to -1 at mid inspiration
6- pressure in the alveoli lower then the atmosphere so air wants to flow into the lungs
7- end of inspiration alveolar pressure= 0, no more movement occurs.

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6
Q

what pressure changes occur during expiration?

A

expiration is a passive process and requires no muscle contraction
forced expiration uses expiratory muscles
1-inspiratory muscles relax
2- thorax shrinks, pulled by elastic recoil of lungs
3- intrapleural pressure rises -7 to -4 (less pull out on the lungs, transpulmonary pressure decreases
4- alveolar pressure increases
5- pressure in alveolar greater then in atmosphere so the air wants to move out of the lungs
6- alveolar pressure at the end is 0

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7
Q

what is the alveolar volume equation?

A

alveolar volume= tidal volume- anatomical dead space

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8
Q

minute ventilation equation
dead space ventilation equation
alveolar ventilation equation

A

tidal volume x frequency of breathing
dead space x frequency of breathing
(tidal volume- dead space) x frequency of breathing

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9
Q

how does deep slow breathing alter alveolar ventilation?

A

increased tidal volume, decreasing frequency of breathing rate which decreases dead space ventilation therefore increasing alveolar ventilation

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10
Q

high lung compliance=

A

large volume change

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11
Q

pro and con of high lung compliance
give an example of a disease that has high compliance

A

con- elastic recoil of the lung is reduced
pro- easy to inflate the lungs (little activity of respiratory muscles required)
emphysema- destruction of alveoli, lungs tend to remain inflated and expiratory muscle activity required to deflate the lungs

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12
Q

pro and con of low lung compliance
example of disease that has low compliance

A

pro- high elastic recoil, passive recoil of lungs not a problem
con- diffucult to inflate the lungs (strong inspiratory muscle activity required)
pulmonary fibrosis- fibrotic material, low compliance, lung volume decreased, patient will breath shallowly and rapidly

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13
Q

what are the determinants of lung compliance and which has more impact?

A

1- elastic elements in the alveolar interstitium
2- surface tension between air and a layer of fluid on the wall of the alveolis **this one plays more of an impact on lung compliance

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14
Q

what is surfactant and what produces it?

A

surfactant is a secretion that reduces surface tension
secreted by type II alveolar cells
increases lung compliance

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15
Q

what are the determinants of airway resistance?

A

1- viscosity of the air (low because of low density gas)
2- length of the airways (fixed)
3- diametre/radius of the vessel

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16
Q

what does changing the radius of the airways do to airway resistance

A

increased radius- reduced airways resistance
decreased radius- increases airway resistance

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17
Q

how does asthma (chemical factor) impact radius of the airways?

A

1- blockage my mucus decreases the radius of the airways- increasing airway resistance
2- local inflammatory chemical mediators (ie histamine) cause smooth muscle to contract (bronchoconstriction)
increase restriction, decrease alveolar ventilation, reduced gas exchange

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18
Q

what does stimulation of the parasympathetic nerves do the the smooth muscle of airways>

A

causes bronchoconstriction

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19
Q

at steady state the volume of oxygen consumed by the cells is ____ the volume of oxygen entering the pulmonary capillaries from the alveoli

A

equal to the
same for CO2, rate of CO2 production by tissue cells equals the rate at which carbon dioxide enters the alveoli and is expired

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20
Q

where is the highest value of O2 and Co2 in the blood circulation?

A

oxygen concentration highest in the arterial blood
carbondioxide concentration highest in the venous blood

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21
Q

what is the respiratory quotent, what is a typical value for it
what can change RQ

A

rq= carbon dioxide produced/ oxygen consumed
0.8- typical value for a normal mixed diet
fat primary fuel= 0.7
protein cellular fuel =0.8

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22
Q

partial pressure of gas is _________ ________ to its concentration of fractional content

A

directly proportional

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23
Q

what value is atmospheric pressure and what makes up this value?

A

760mmHg
sum of partial pressures in the atmosphere= atmospheric pressure

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24
Q

what are the three factors that affect partial alveolar pressure for oxygen?

A

1- how much oxygen are we breathing in
2- alveolar ventilation- how much fresh air is getting into the alveoli
3- volume of oxygen consumed- how much oxygen is being used by the body

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25
if you use more oxygen (VO2 up) PAO2 ____
decreases if you use more oxygen then the amount of oxygen in the alveoli decreases
26
if you increase your breathing (increased alveolar ventilation) PAO2 ____
increases more ventilation of the lungs= more oxygen in the alveoli
27
what is the 4 parametres that rapid diffusion of O2 and Co2 rely on?
1- diffusion properties of O2 and CO2 2- thin walls of the alveoli 3- large alveolar surface area for gas exchange to occur over 4- partial pressure difference for O2 and CO2
28
true or false: CO2 has a larger diffusion constant then O2 as CO2 is much more soluble in plasma then O2
true
29
why is there overall not much difference in the overall rate of diffusion between oxygen and carbon dioxide?
although carbon dioxide has a much larger diffusion constant compared to oxygen- carbon dioxide has a much lower partial pressure gradient which balances them out and not much difference in overall diffusion rate
30
what effect does pulmonary oedema have on diffusion
increases diffusion distance= reduced rate of oxygen diffusion
31
what effect does interstitial fibrosis have on diffusion
increased diffusion distance- thickening of alveolar wall reduces rate of oxygen diffusion
32
what impact does emphysema have on diffusion?
destruction of the alveolar walls, decreased surface area for diffusion and reduced number of pulmonary capillaries
33
what occurs to the airflow with decreased blood flow to a region of the lung in ventilation perfusion mismatching?
decreased partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli bronchioles will constrict decreased airflow - diverting airflow away from the area of lung with disease to healthy area of lungs to increase perfusion ventilation matching
34
what occurs to the blood flow with decreased airflow to a region of the lungs?
decreased partial pressure of oxygen in the pulmonary blood vasoconstriction of pulmonary vessels decreased blood flow (to match decreased airflow) diversion of blood flow away from local area of disease and towards a healthy area of the lungs
35
what are the two transport mechanisms for oxygen in the blood? what form is it mostly found in?
dissoloved in plasma bound to haemglobin **note only the oxygen dissolved in plasma is responsible for the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood
36
how does oxygen bind to hb?
oxygen binds to the haem part- 4 oxygen molecules per hb molecule. oxygen binds through cooperative binding, the more oxygen that is bound makes it easier for the next oxygen to attatch
37
what is the oxygen saturation of arterial vs venous blood?
arterial= 98% venous= 75%
38
what occurs to blood oxygen in an anemic patient?
they have lower hb concentrations which means they have a decreased capacity to carry oxygen they can still have 100% saturation but they amount of oxygen they carry is less because they have less hb in the blood
39
in a oxygen HB dissociation curve what does the steep slope favour?
favours offloading of oxygen in areas of the body that have a low partial pressure of oxygen
40
in a oxygen HB dissociation curve what does the flat portion favour?
flat slope favours the loading of oxygen onto HB in high partial pressures of oxygen helps to maintain oxygen saturation at high altitude or for someone with lung disease
41
factors that cause an increased affinity for HB cause a ____ in p50 and a _____ shift of the curve which favours the _____ of oxygen and HB
decrease leftwards loading "increased oxygen attraction"
42
any factor that causes a decreased affinity of HB for oxygen causes an ____ in p50 which causes the curve to shift to the ____, this favours the _____ of oxygen and HB
increased right relased of oxygen from hb "lower oxygen attraction"
43
describe how the bohr effect impacts the efficient hb function
the affinity of oxygen is dependent on carbon dioxide and hydrogen concentrations ie in the lungs where there is low carbon dioxide levels it favours the loading of oxygen in metabolising tissues where there is high concentrations of carbon dioxide it favours the offloading of oxygen
44
what are the three forms that carbon dioxide is transported through the blood in what what form does it mostly travel in?
1- dissolved in the plasma 2- bound to hb in the erythrocytes forming carboamino compounds (co2 binds to the globin part of the haemoglobin) 3- in the form of bicarbonate ion *mostly travels in the form of bicarbonate ion (60%) **only co2 dissolved in plasma is responsible for the partial pressure of co2 in the blood
45
where does the conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate occur and through what enzyme is this?
carbon dioxide conversion occurs in the erthrocytes through a enzyme called carbonic anhydrase
46
when a bicarb moves out of the rbc down its concentration gradient a ___ ion moves ____ the rbc to maintian electroneutrality ___ moves ___ rbc to maintain osmolarity
cl- moves into the rbc to maintain electroneutrality h20 moves into rbc to maintain osmolarity
47
In the haldane effect what occurs to the curve when the partial pressure of oxygen is low
the co2 curve is shifted up and to the left (reduced p50) this effect is for the removal of carbon dioxide from tissues
48
in the haldane effect what occurs to the curve when the partial pressure of oxygen is high?
the co2 curve is shifted down and to the right this means carbon dioxide binds less readily to globin promotes the release of carbon dioxide from haemoglobin ( ie in the lungs to get rid of the carbon dioxide through respiration)
49
haldane vs bohr effect
bohr effect =the effect that carbon doxide has on oxygen carriage haldane effect= the effect oxygen has on carbon dioxide binding to haemoglobin
50
how does haemoglobin buffer hydrogen ions
deoxyg hb has greater affinity for H+ then oxyhb does so it binds H+ ions that are produced by metabolism then the blood passes through the lungs these reactions are reversed
51
hypoventilation leads to respiratory ______ this causes retention of _____ in the blood this increase drives the reaction to the _____ and an increase in ____ causes a ____ in pH
hypoventilation where you are breathing less- means you breath less carbon dioxide out causing... acidosis co2 right H+ drop (more acidic)
52
hyperventilation will lead to respiratory _____ this causes increased ___ of ___ from the blood reduced ___ drives the reaction to the ____ the ___ levels in the blood will fall and an ____ ph will occur
alkalosis increased loss of CO2 from the blood less co2 drives reaction to the left the hydrogen levels in the blood will fall and increased ph will occur (alkalosis)
53
neurons in the inspiratory centre _____ discharge vs neurons in the expiratory centre _____ discharge
inspiratory neurons- spontaneously discharge to induce muscle contraction of inspiratory muscles expiratory neurons don't discharge spontaneously, expiration is a passive process and doesnt typically require muscle activity
54
involuntary control of breathing vs voluntary control of breathing?
involuntary control occuring through the medulla oblongata containing the expiratory and inspiratory centres voluntary control of breathing bypasses the medulla and the cerebral cortex directhly sends information to the spinal cord
55
what is the role of nucleus tractus solitarius in breathing>
recieves sensory information from mechano&chemoreceptors these cause reflex adjustment in breathing response to things such as exercise, airway irritants or environmental changes
56
where are the peripheral chemoreceptors located?
aoritc arch and body - signal through the vagus nerve carotid bodies signalling via the glossopharyngeal nerve
57
an increase in firing of peripheral chemoreceptors causes an ___ in ventilation
increased
58
what conditions of Po2, Pco2 or H+ concentration cause increased firing from peripheral chemoreceptors?
decreased oxygen= hypoxia increased carbon dioxide= hypercapnia increase in arterial H+ concentration= acidosis
59
where are the central chemoreceptors located what are they senstive and what are they insensitive to?
located in the medulla oblongata insensitive to- hypoxia, arterial acidosis (as H+ cannot cross blood brain barrier) sensitive to concentration of H+ in the brain extracellular fluid this is because co2 converted to H+ ions this detection increases ventilation
60
ventilation response only occurs when arterial Po2 falls below ____
60mmHg this is because up until this level haemoglobin is still mostly fully saturated
61
are central or peripheral chemoreceptors more prominant when it comes to hypercapnia ventilation response?
central chemoreceptors play a bigger role due to more carbon dioxide in fluid around the brain small increases to pco2= large increases in ventilation
62
how does ventilation change in response to metabolic acidosis?
increased H+ production detected by chemoreceptors response through hyperventilation co2 is blown off reducing arterial concentration of co2.
63
how does ventilation change in response to metabolic alkalosis?
loss of H+ ions through vomiting low H+ levels detected by peripheral chemorecptors = reduced ventilation hypoventilation increases Pco2 which leads to formation of H+ ions

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