Russia: Empire, Nationalities and Satellite States Flashcards
(21 cards)
Alexander II (Russification / Overall)
The Russian Empire initially consisted of ‘Great Russia’ and ‘national minorities’ mainly from Poland Finland the Caucasus and Central Asia and the Baltic provinces. The first Russian census of 1897 showed that minorities made up 55% of the Empire’s population in Ukraine.
Alexander III (Russification / Overall)
Alexander III reversed many of his father’s reforms adopting a more conservative and nationalist approach. His policies were characterised by the Russification of non- Russian populations and harsh repression of minority cultures and political dissent.
Nicholas II (Russification / Overall)
Lenin (Russification / Overall)
The main difference between the tsarist policy was that the communists aimed to create a federal system of government where each national minority had a certain amount of autonomy but together formed a federation of states to be guided centrally from Moscow. MAIN ELEMENT
Stalin (Russification / Overall)
1924: a new constitution formally created the Federal Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Each republic was allowed its own government and other symbols of sovereignty such as national flags. However such governments were still answerable to Sovnarkom. 1936: The ‘Stalin Constitution’ added Kirghizia and Tajikistan to the list of states given full republic status. It also created a system that appeared to allow greater representation of the interests of separate nation-states in the centralised government of the USSR. In reality under Stalin very tight control was kept on minorities more so than under the tsars. The fact that Khrushchev partly reverted to the model of treatment of national minorities established in the mid-1920s under Lenin suggests that the Stalinist approach was considered inappropriate.
Khrushchev (Russification / Overall)
Despite being Ukrainian there was no move for greater independence for nationalities. The Party Doctrine as reformulated at the 22nd Party Congress of 1961 stated that the ultimate aim was for the ethnic distinctions to disappear and a single common language be adopted by all nationalities in the Soviet Union.
Alexander II (Poland)
1863 January Uprising: After the Polish revolt seeking independence Alexander II reacted by brutally suppressing the rebellion. Banned the Polish language in schools and administration. Confiscating Polish noble estates and giving them to Russian loyalists. Alexander’s initial reforms sparked hope which led to Polish nationalism which was characterised by increased demands for political autonomy education reforms like reopening Warsaw University and debates over serfdom in Poland. Wielopolski appointed Polish prime minister in 1862-63 wanted partial independence. By the summer of 1862 there was a swelling of patriotic fervour seen in an increased number of mass meetings and demonstrations. From January 1863 to spring 1864 the Polish government faced rebellion; guerilla warfare. However they failed to gain peasant support and the leaders were eventually executed. Polish nobility were exiled to Siberia under Milyutin their estates transferred to incoming Russian officials. Polish peasants were emancipated given more favourable rights than their Russian counterparts had in 1861 and paid for allotted lands through a reformed taxation system. Rural district councils were set up like the Zemstva which laid the basis for cross-class consciousness lacking in Russia As a result nationalism diminished as did autonomy. Russian became the official language of administration and governance and the Catholic Church was not allowed to communicate with the Vatican in an attempt to diminish its authority: this was the start of Russification and the Milyutin Plan was seen as a blueprint for resolving regional conflict and expanding Russian power.
Alexander III (Poland)
The Catholic Church (a central pillar of Polish identity) was repressed. Continued and intensified his father’s policy of Russification. Polish was banned in schools courts and government replaced by Russian. The Milyutin Plan amounted to the start of the process of Russification that was to spread to other territories meaning that until the end of 1915 Poland was considered an integral part of Russia. 1890s: Poland revealed its importance in fuelling Russian industrialisation. Polish proletariat emerged interested in Marxism. 1892: Polish Socialist Party (PPS) formed followed by 1893 Social Democratic Party Reemergence of Nationalists who roamed the National Democrats group All the politicians from these groups went on to make contributions to 1st & 2nd Dumas BUT lost influence like other national minorities by 1914
Nicholas II (Poland)
Russification ensured that until the end of 1915 Poland was considered an integral part of Russia. The First World War was a major turning point for Russian Poles. German successes at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914 provided the impetus for a rapid advance into Russian territory. By September 1915 German and Austrian advances meant that Russia was forced to give up jurisdiction over Warsaw and Vilna the centres of the Vistula region. Poland was free from Russian rule although official independence was not granted until 1918 in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Lenin (Poland)
The Russian Civil War created the prospect of Poland losing its newly found freedom. The Red Army tried to recapture Polish territory hoping to free workers from Polish tyranny and cause a knock on effect for neighbouring states’ proletariat. But Russian forces were halted outside Warsaw before being forced to retreat. On 16 October 1920 an armistice between Poland and Russia was signed and Polish independence was confirmed with them gaining territory that would last until WW2.
Stalin (Poland)
Russo-Polish relations after 1933 and until 1939 were influenced by the following developments: The neutrality pact between Russia and Germany (Treaty of Berlin); this was agreed on by Russia despite the fact that the Nazis were opposed to communism. Early signs of Germany’s expansionist policy (hinted at by the non- aggression pact between Germany and Poland of January 1934). The Russian response to the pact (annulment of Polish and Baltic non-aggression treaties from May 1934). Russia’s admittance to the League of Nations in September 1934. The growing concerns by the end of 1935 that Germany would attempt an invasion of Russia via Poland. The formation of the Anti-Comintern alliance. The Anti-Comintern alliance did not bode well for Poland; it inferred that Germany was considering a direct challenge to Russian authority possibly through invasion. Geographically it was only Poland that stood in the way. The late 1930s witnessed the tension between Russia and Germany peaking: The 1938 Anschluss of Austria suggested that it would not have taken much for the Nazis to target Czechoslovakia and then Poland for takeover. Stalin’s purges and anti-appeasement stance alienated the British and French; this in theory meant that Russia would be left alone to defend Poland (and then its own borders). Russian exclusion from the Munich Peace Conference confirmed that the Soviet Union might be left to its own devices in coping with the Nazi threat. Thus the Russian leadership proceeded to broker deals with Hitler. The ultimate deal made by Stalin with Germany was the signing of the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact of August 1939. The signing of the pact was in reality an admission to Poland by the Russian leadership that the Soviet Union would not interfere in any attempt by Germany to invade Poland (happened 1 September 1939). By the early stages of the war the Polish government had decided to flee to London and with the support of a Polish underground movement to go into exile. One of the main aims of the London Poles was to ensure that when the war came to an end Poland would not endure any territorial loss. The Nazi- Soviet Pact had obviously soured relations between the Polish government and Russia. Matters took a sharp turn for the worse when in April 1943 the German occupying forces in Poland revealed that they had uncovered the mass graves of 4231 Polish officers in a forest at Katyn near Smolensk. The Germans suggested that the killings had been carried out by the NKVD in spring 1940. The London Poles pushed for an investigation by the International Red Cross which caused the Russians to accuse the exiled government of attempting to collaborate with Germany. Russia then ceased all diplomatic relations with the London Poles. In the summer of 1944 the Russians launched a massive offensive against German forces. The London Poles feared that they would be excluded from post-war settlements on the governance of Poland when Russia forced out the Nazis and claimed that the communist-dominated National Liberation Committee (NLC) in Lublin would constitute a puppet regime. In February 1945 the British US and Russian war leaders met at Yalta to discuss among other things what would happen to Poland once hostilities had ceased. By this time Warsaw had been liberated and was temporarily governed by the Red Army. Stalin demanded that the new Russo-Polish frontier should be established along the so-called Curzon line and that the whole of Poland had to be governed by a Soviet-backed Lublin-style regime. Roosevelt and Churchill acquiesced; the London Poles were abandoned and the new border was agreed to at least in principle. In July 1945 a second conference held at Potsdam dealt with the issue of Poland’s western border. Stalin persuaded Truman (Roosevelt died on 12 April 1945) and Churchill to accept a western demarcation at the ‘Oder-Niesse line’ which was well inside ethnic Germany. The Yalta and Potsdam agreements together paved the way for Russia to fully implement a Soviet-style government across the newly reconstituted Poland. In February 1947 a provisional constitution was instigated which set up a Council of State. The Council had almost total legislative and executive power and was dominated by the Stalinist-influenced Polish Workers’ Party (PPR). By August 1948 the PPR was the only party that could be voted for (thus a one- party state had been established). Those who questioned the move away from any semblance of social democracy such as members of the Church and trade unions were arrested. In 1950 for example over 30
Khrushchev (Poland)
Khrushchev’s ‘Secret Speech’ provoked a demand from Polish intellectuals for Stalinist politicians in Poland to stand down. Such requests were supported by workers through strike action. Khrushchev largely agreed to their demands in October 1956 Wladyslaw Gomulka was released from prison to take over leadership of Poland. What followed was an easing of control over the Polish people for example peasants were allowed to leave collective farms to set yo independent small holdings and the Catholic Church was once more allowed to teach religion in schools. Generally until Khrushchev’s death the Polish experience elements of relief from the highly oppressive period of Stalinist overrule.
Alexander II (Finland)
Finland had a relatively autonomous status within the empire. Alexander II respected Finnish autonomy and the use of the Finnish language. He even allowed the Finnish parliament (Diet) to meet in 1963 granting the country a degree of political independence and a constitution in 1865.
Alexander III (Finland)
Despite his father’s relatively liberal treatment of Finland Alexander III began to restrict its autonomy. The Russian language was introduced into Finnish government institutions although Finnish cultural autonomy remained intact compared to other regions.
Lenin (Finland)
Gained Independence in The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. After the First World War Finland went about establishing and consolidating a Republican style government under the presidency of Karol Juho Ståhlberg however relations with the Soviets remained challenging. A number of border disputes arose such as the Pork mutiny of 1922. Some improvement occurred with the signing of the Treaty of Tartu in 1920 (in which Finland gained Petsamo at the expense of allowing East Karelia to become independent). In 1923 Finnish Communists established the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (a Soviet satellite state) which once again heightened tensions.
Stalin (Finland)
By the 1930s Stalin had placed Finland under further pressure by hindering its merchant shipping especially in the seas between Lake Lagoda and the Gulf of Finland. At the start of the Second World War Finland refused a request from Stalin to allow the Soviet Union to set up military bases on Finnish territory. This angered Stalin and resulted in his order to bomb the Finnish capital Helsinki (November 1939). In turn this action sparked the Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland (November 1939 to March 1940). The significance of this for the Russian government was that war once again highlighted military weaknesses; there were somewhere near 50
Alexander II (Jews)
Russian Jews were unique in that their geographical location was artificially created and crossed the boundaries of other groups. Jews were largely confined to living in a specific region called the Pale of Settlement which included parts of modern-day Poland Lithuania Belarus Ukraine and Moldova. They were generally forbidden from living outside this area unless they obtained special permission. Under Alexander II some Jews especially those who were merchants of the first guild university graduates or skilled craftsmen were allowed to live outside the Pale of Settlement and in major cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg. Alexander II eased restrictions on Jewish education to some degree allowing Jews to attend universities and secondary schools but a quota system limited the number of Jewish students: ▪ 10% quota for Jewish students in schools within the Pale of Settlement. ▪ 5% quota in schools outside the Pale. ▪ 3% quota in schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Conscription of Jews: Alexander II maintained the military conscription policies of his predecessors which required Jewish boys starting at age 12 to undergo military training and then 25 years of service. However in 1856 the age requirement was raised to 18 and certain harsh conditions of service were improved. Some Jews were promoted to higher ranks unlike under previous rulers reflecting a mild liberalisation. Professional Opportunities: Alexander II allowed some Jewish professionals particularly in medicine and law to practise more freely. Jewish lawyers in particular made significant strides during his reign. Reversal of Reforms: Later in his reign especially after the assassination attempt in 1866 Alexander II came under pressure from conservative nationalists and began to reverse many of these reforms leading to renewed restrictions on Jewish mobility and professional life.
Alexander III (Jews)
Alexander III’s reign saw a sharp increase in antisemitism. There was never an active opposition to Russian leaders but a perceived threat that resulted in bad treatment up to the First World War. He believed they were behind the infamous Ignatiev memorandum along with all of the negative and insidious influences from the West In the Pale of Settlement Jews were confined even more strictly. Many of the exceptions that had allowed certain Jews (merchants professionals etc.) to live outside the Pale were revoked. Jews were expelled from certain cities outside the Pale notably Moscow in 1891 when Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich (the Tsar’s brother) ordered the forcible removal of Jewish residents from the city. Following the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 (which was wrongly blamed in part on Jewish revolutionaries) a wave of pogroms (violent attacks on Jewish communities) broke out particularly in southern Russia. Alexander III responded with the May Laws of 1882 which severely restricted Jewish life: Jews were forbidden to live outside towns and shtetls (small Jewish villages) within the Pale of Settlement. They were barred from buying land in rural areas even within the Pale. Jewish businesses were heavily restricted with limitations placed on the size and type of enterprise they could operate. Jews were barred from holding public office or working in government institutions and were removed from the electoral register of the Zemstva. The educational quotas on Jewish students were further tightened under Alexander III Pogroms were widespread during Alexander III’s reign with the government offering little protection to Jewish communities. Many local officials either turned a blind eye to the violence or openly supported the mobs attacking Jewish homes businesses and synagogues. The first a mini program called ‘Little Thunder’ occured in the Pale prompted by an anti-Semitic group known as the Holy League. The worst of these pogroms took place in Kiev (1881) and Odessa (1881– 1882) where hundreds of Jews were killed injured and displaced. Jews were increasingly excluded from certain professions particularly in law medicine and engineering. Restrictions on business ownership were tightened making it harder for Jews to own or operate certain types of enterprises. The government promoted the economic marginalisation of Jews by limiting their participation in local trade and crafts. Business licences for Jews were often revoked or heavily restricted leading to economic hardship. Alexander III’s government encouraged the forced conversion of Jews to the Russian Orthodox faith as a way to assimilate them into Russian
Nicholas II (Jews)
Nicholas II continued the anti-Jewish position taken by his father. They were accused of being ‘revolutionaries’ as some were affiliated to the Social Democrats (SDs; and there was indeed a separate Jewish SD Party called the Bund.) Despite Nicholas’s dislike of Jewish people he made some important concessions by allowing them to sit on the Duma.
Stalin (Jews)
The communists were just as repressive towards Jewish people. More ‘special’ settlements were established in the 1930s such as that at Khaburovsk. By the Second World War more oppression took place with a ban being imposed on the Jewish religion the closure of a range of Jewish institutions (for example schools and societies) and a ban on specialist publications. This carried on after the war. Of particular note was the Doctors’ Plot of August 1952 which ended in fifteen Jewish leaders being tried and executed.
Khrushchev (Jews)
The perceived threat of Jewish subversiveness and plotting was always apparent throughout the rule of Khrushchev with a number of prominent Jewish technical specialists being executed for anti-communist activity. Despite Khrushchev denying being an anti-Semite (having a Jewish daughter-in-law) he was against permitting Jews to have their own schools and complained that Soviet Jews preferred intellectual pursuits to ‘mass occupations’ such as the building trades and metal industry. He also refused to allow Jews to emigrate to the new state of Israel created after the Second World War.
