The Provisional Government Flashcards
(10 cards)
Main domestic policies of the Provisional Government
Established: 2 March 1917, after Tsar Nicholas II abdicated.
Led by: Prince Lvov (March–July 1917), then Alexander Kerensky (July–November 1917).
Key policies:
Granted civil liberties: freedom of speech, press, assembly, Abolished the death penalty (in March, later reinstated by Kerensky in August to restore discipline), Introduced universal suffrage (including women for the first time), Refused land redistribution, angering peasants, Continued fighting WWI, causing mass unrest
The Provisional Government attempted to halt social unrest by imposing a number of liberal measures:
■The police department was disbanded and all policing was to be carried out by local militias.
■ Old-style regional governors and officials were replaced with a new wave of administrators.
■ Many political prisoners (for example, Trotsky) were released or given an amnesty to return to Russia.
■Newspapers, books and pamphlets increased in circulation. The net effect
was to allow Russian people to voice their opinions more strongly about how they wanted their country to be run in the future.
■From the beginning, the Provisional Government had promised and planned for the creation of a democratically elected Constituent Assembly. In the end, their promises did little to appease agitators and the new liberal climate simply allowed dissent to mount.
MILITARY REFORM:
- Order No. 1 (1 March 1917)
Issued by the Petrograd Soviet, not the PG, but reluctantly accepted.
Stripped officers of their authority and placed control in the hands of elected soldier committees.
Undermined army discipline, leading to mass desertions (1.5 million soldiers deserted by late 1917).
- Abolition of Class Distinctions in the Army
Soldiers were allowed to wear civilian clothes off duty.
They could address officers informally, breaking strict Tsarist military hierarchy.
- Failed June Offensive (16 June – 20 July 1917)
Kerensky attempted a final push against Germany, but it ended in 400,000 Russian casualties.
Led to mass desertions and discontent among soldiers.
The nature of the government
- Although only temporary arrangement = unelected, unrepresentative and essentially the ‘old guard’ in disguise = lacked legitimacy
- dual power / share with the Petrograd soviet = had to rely on members of the soviet to provide support if reforms were to be pushed through = Petrograd Soviet (workers’ council) had influence, especially over the army (Order No. 1)
- 2 biggest problems = demands for fairer land distribution and Russia’s war performance = neither was tackled with any confidence = opposition gaining momentum and eventually taking over
- plans for a Constituent Assembly election (Nov 1917).
- dominated by liberals (Kadets), moderate socialists (SRs, Mensheviks), but not Bolsheviks.
Methods of repression and enforcement
- focussed on wartime security, establishing the Counter Espionage Bureau of the Petrograd Military District, designed to weed out those who were undermining the war effort, including the Bolsheviks.
- March–April 1917: Initially abolished the Okhrana (Tsarist secret police) and censorship.
- April 1917: Used military to disperse troops and suppress April Days protests (against continued war).
- July 1917 (July Days revolt): Bolsheviks attempted an uprising, crushed by PG forces; 800 Bolsheviks arrested, including Leon Trotsky & Lenin fled to Finland.
- August 1917 (Kornilov Affair): General Lavr Kornilov attempted a military coup. Kerensky armed the Bolsheviks’ Red Guards to defend Petrograd, strengthening the opposition.
- October 1917: PG lost control, had no real enforcement power left.
The extent and impact of reform
✅ Successes:
End of Tsarist autocracy.
Introduction of democratic elections (though not realized).
Abolition of censorship and secret police.
Women’s suffrage and legal equality.
The Provisional Government passed liberal reforms such as the dismantling of the Okhrana, hoping to create stability, though this was unsuccessful.
Some early reforms (e.g., freedom of press & speech, political prisoners released) were popular.
❌ Failures:
No land reform, leading to mass illegal seizures = Mass illegal land seizures occurred: over 237,000 estates occupied by peasants by October 1917 & widespread violence between landowners and peasants.
Army discipline collapsed, leading to mass desertions.
Lost control to Soviets and Bolsheviks, who gained public support.
Principles that guided them contributed to downfall, for example releasing political prisoners, as this allowed opposition forums to gather momentum (Amnesty for Political Prisoners (March 1917), Thousands of prisoners from Tsarist repression were released, including Bolsheviks such as Leon Trotsky., Exiles were allowed to return, including Vladimir Lenin (April 1917) and Joseph Stalin.)
War continued, leading to mass desertions (1.5 million soldiers deserted by late 1917).
Food shortages worsened, and inflation skyrocketed (food prices doubled between Feb–Oct 1917), leading to strikes and protests.
The extent and effectiveness of opposition
They faced a similar level of opposition to the Tsars. They struggled to deal with its opponents from March to September 1917. There were a number of reasons for this:
The majority of members of other parties wanted a short-term government based on consensus, with the main aim of creating a Constituent Assembly. The leading Bolsheviks rejected this since it would favour ‘old interests’ to the detriment of workers and peasants.
Changes made by the Provisional Government facilitated the revival of political groups such as the Bolsheviks whose leaders had been in exile. Stalin moved back to Petrograd from exile in Siberia in March 1917, and Lenin from Switzerland in April. Lenin moved quickly to publish his April Theses, in which he condemned the Provisional Government for being bourgeois, and called for a seizure of power by the soviet.
Bolshevik leaders used propaganda to appeal for support from both workers and peasants
The growing strength of worker’s committees, especially in Petrograd, was worrying. These members were mainly opposed to the interim government, and it was probably this groundswell of opposition from workers that paved the way for the Bolshevik coup.
The Provisional Government struggled to deal with the Bolsheviks directly. Although leading Bolsheviks were exiled or imprisoned after the disturbances of the July Days, Kerensky strengthened their position by involving them in the resolution of the Kornilov affair.
Bolsheviks gained strength by opposing the PG.
April 1917: Lenin returned from exile, issued April Theses:
“All power to the Soviets!”
“Peace, Bread, Land!”
Bolshevik membership: 24,000 (Feb 1917) → 350,000 (Oct 1917).
Soviets (workers’ councils) increasingly ignored the PG.
Soldiers and workers radicalized, especially after the Kornilov Affair.
Changes in urban and rural living and working conditions
Urban:
Petrograd’s bread ration: fell to 110g per day by October 1917.
Workers’ wages lagged behind inflation, causing strikes.
Strikes: Over 700 factories closed, 100,000 workers unemployed (Oct 1917).
In 1917, an 8-hour working day was the norm. This was a result of a decree made by the Provisional Government.
Rural:
Peasants seized over 237,000 estates (July–Oct 1917).
Lack of land reform led to violent peasant revolts (summer 1917).
Grain hoarding caused urban food shortages.
Limitations on personal / political / religious freedom
The rest of the period was dominated by leaders, who, whenever they felt their authority, was being challenged, restricted personal and political freedoms. The provisional government was the only exception to this with a more tolerant approach adopted towards grassroots, political activism.
Political parties legalized, but Bolsheviks still faced persecution (after July Days).
Censorship initially lifted, then reintroduced in Sept 1917 as opposition grew.
Religious freedom granted, but the Russian Orthodox Church lost state support.
Extent of economic and social changes
ECONOMY:
- Inflation: 400% by mid-1917.
- Real wages fell sharply, strikes increased.
- 700 factories shut down due to fuel & raw material shortages.
- Collapse of the railway system → food & supply crises.
- Peasants resisted selling grain → widespread urban hunger.
- Food prices doubled between March and October 1917.
- Petrograd bread ration fell to 110g per day by October 1917.
- By October 1917, 100,000 workers were unemployed in Petrograd.
- Workers’ councils (Soviets) gained power as factory committees challenged employers.
SOCIETY:
- Expansion of Personal Freedoms…
Religious tolerance granted: the Russian Orthodox Church lost its state privileges.
Trade unions legalized, allowing workers to negotiate wages and conditions.
An 8-hour workday introduced in some industries.
- Women’s Rights
Women were granted the right to vote, making Russia one of the first major countries to do so.
Women gained equal rights in marriage and divorce.
First female government minister in Russian history: Alexandra Kollontai (Commissar for Welfare under the Bolsheviks).
The impact of the continuing war
WW1
Optimists believe that the continuation of the war made it impossible for the temporary government to deal with the burning issues of land reform, the modernisation of industry and the call for a Constituent Assembly. Thus, the war gave an opportunity to revolutionaries to overthrow the government completely and install their own form of direct rule.
The Bolsheviks took German money to finance their propaganda machine and to give payments to worker supporters who otherwise would not have afforded to be full-time political activists. Germany also fought hard to repel the Provisional Government’s summer offensive in 1917, agreed to a ceasefire in December 1917 allowed Lenin free rein to win the Civil War and then agreed to a trade deal in 1922 that averted Bolshevik bankruptcy. Hence, the war can be seen as an event that was skilfully exploited by the Bolsheviks and which allowed them to consolidate power.
June 1917: Kerensky’s June Offensive against Germany failed disastrously.
400,000 Russian casualties, mass desertions.
Soldiers refused orders, mutinies increased.
Army discipline collapsed: 2 million soldiers deserted by October 1917.
War spending = 80% of budget, worsening economic crisis.
Widespread belief that only the Bolsheviks would end the war.
Reasons for the overthrow of the Provisional Government
- Dual Authority: Power was split between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet. Order No. 1 undermined PG’s control of the military.
- Failure to End the War → Mass desertions & public anger and Economic resources were drained by war efforts.
- Failure to Solve the Land Issue → Peasants took land illegally, ignored PG authority.
- Economic Collapse → Inflation, food shortages, mass strikes.
- Bolshevik Growth → Popular slogans: “Peace, Bread, Land!” and Membership grew from 24,000 in Feb to 350,000 by Oct 1917.
- Weak Military Support → PG had no loyal army after Kornilov Affair (August 1917, Kerensky lost military support and Bolsheviks gained weapons and legitimacy)
- October Revolution (24-25 Oct 1917):
Bolsheviks seized key buildings (telegraph, bridges, banks). - Winter Palace stormed; PG collapsed with barely any resistance.
