S1

Question 1

what is an ethical guideline

Answer 1

ethics are moral principles and codes of behaviours
Ethical guidelines or codes are used by groups/organisations to define what actions are morally right and wrong.

Question 2

ethical guideline of protection from harm

Answer 2

Protect participants‘ physical and psychological welfare

Question 3

ethical guideline of informed consent

Answer 3

Must have written, informed permission from each participant before commencement of research.
A guardian must sign if participant is under 18 years.

Question 4

ethical guideline of withdrawal rights

Answer 4

A participant has the right to cease their participation in an experiment at anytime without negative consequences or pressure to continue

Question 5

ethical guideline of deception

Answer 5

deception is when the researcher misleads/withholds information from the participant about the nature of the study
Researchers should avoid deceiving participants about the nature of the research unless there is no alternative – and this would need to be judged acceptable by an independent expert.

Question 6

ethical guideline of confidentiality

Answer 6

Procedures need to be adopted to ensure that the identities of participants will not be revealed except to people directly involved in the study

Question 7

ethical guideline of privacy

Answer 7

Privacy is the right of protection from unwanted intrusion by the government or other people/organisations into one’s affairs. It is protected by commonwealth laws
Avoid undue invasions of privacy in the collection of information
psychologists only collect personal information of relevance/essential to the research topic being examined.

Question 8

ethical guideline of voluntary participation

Answer 8

A participant must willingly decide to take part in an experiment.
( cannot pressure or coerce to participate or threaten negative consequence if they do not participate)

Question 9

ethical guideline of debriefing

Answer 9

Debriefing the process of giving participants in a completed research project a fuller explanation of the study in which they participated than was possible before or during the research. Debriefing is not always required.

Question 10

three R’s in use of animals in research

Answer 10

replacement, reduction, refinement

Question 11

replacement- animals in research

Answer 11

use method that permit a given purpose of an activity or project to be used without the use of animals

Question 12

reduction- animals in research

Answer 12

use method for obtaining comparable levels of information from the use of fewer animals in scientific procedures or for obtaining more information from the same number of animals

Question 13

refinement- animals in research

Answer 13

use method that alleviate or minimise potential pain and distress, and enhance animal wellbeing

Question 14

formulating research

Answer 14

identify the aims/s of the research, develop a research question based on the aim/s, identify variables, construct/formulate a hypothesis and/or inquiry question

Question 15

identify variables when formulating research

Answer 15

what are the independent, dependent, control, and extraneous variables

Question 16

non-directional hypothesis

Answer 16

hypothesis that one experimental group will differ from another without specification of the expected direction of the difference. can also be a hypothesis that there is a relationship between variables, but no direction is specified

written in 3rd person
should be testable
should include 2 or more groups or predict that the independent variable will influence the dependent without specifying the direction
should state the relationship of research interest but not state the predicted direction of the difference

Question 17

directional hypothesis

Answer 17

a scientific prediction stating that an effect will occur and it will specifically increase or specifically decrease, depending on changes to the independent variable

written in third person
should be testable
should include the dependant and independent variables
should explain what is expected to happen (a prediction of the outcome)

Question 18

inquiry questions

Answer 18

qualitative research questions seek to explore or describe phenomena, so they are often more general and vaguely worded

instead of asking how 1 variable causes change in another, researches instead try to understand the experiences, understandings, and meanings that people have about the concepts in our research question
often contain words like lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning, and stories
do not use quantitative words such as relate, influence, effect, or cause

Question 19

types of research designs

Answer 19

experimental (control and experimental group) and non-experimental, observational, case study, correlation, longitudinal, cross sectional

Question 20

experimental (control and experimental group) research design method

Answer 20

The experimental method involves the manipulation ofvariablesto establish cause and effect relationships.
The key features are controlled methods and the random allocation of participants intocontrolled and experimental groups.

Question 21

non-experimental research design method

Answer 21

-Research where an independent variable is unable to be manipulated but may be measured.
-In non-experimental research, the independent variables may not be manipulated for one of three reasons.
-The variables physically cannot be manipulated, but may be measured – e.g., age.
-The variables cannot be manipulated for ethical reasons – e.g., promoting alcohol use to study its effects of newborns, underfeeding babies to alter weight, or giving people carcinogens.
-It is not feasible to alter the variables. This includes things like suburban crime.

Question 22

observational research design method

Answer 22

-The termobservational researchis used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in which behaviour is systematically observed and recorded.
-The goal is to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics of an individual, group, or setting.
-The data that are collected in observational research studies are often qualitative in nature, but they may also be quantitative or both (mixed-methods).

Question 23

case study research design method

Answer 23

-In depth investigation of an individual, group, event, or community.
-Researcher collects data through interviews, observation, tests and examination of records and documents.
-Multiple types of data (psychological, physiological, biographical, environmental) are assembled, for example, to understand an individual’s background, relationships, and behaviour.
-Collections of case studies can be used as part of non-experimental research.

Question 24

correlation research design method

Answer 24

-Researchers look for a relationship between two or more behavioural variables (Non-manipulable but measurable variables used in place of independent or dependent variables) and try to find the strength between them.
-Does not show causation as there may be many uncontrolled variables that affect the results
-Correlation studies are used to study behavioural variables (pre-existing variables that cannot be varied by the experimenter) e.g., low birth weight and academic performance
-Even if there is a very strong association between two variables, we cannot assume that one causes the other

Question 25

cross sectional research design method

Answer 25

-Does not fit neatly into experimental or non-experimental research.
-A research design that compares data collected at the same point in time from people of different groups (e.g. different ages).
-Data collection takes place at a single point in time.
-For example, cross-sectional sampling may involve collecting data from individuals of various ages or developmental levels so as to study behavioural or other differences among them.

Cohort - A group of people of the same age who have experienced the same cultural conditions and environmental events.
Cohort Effect - the effect of an external event on members of a particular group, which could bias their behaviour
Cohort often effect impacts cross sectional studies

Question 26

longitudinal research design method

Answer 26

-Research method that follows the development of individuals in one group over time to make claims about developmental changes.
-Some studies are brief, only lasting a few months to a year, others last many years!
-In longitudinal studies, researchers collect data from a single set of participants over time.
-So, a researcher might collect information on attitudes towards gender equality in the workplace in 2019 from a group of 20-year-olds, and then ask the participants the same questions when they are 40 (in 2039) and again when they are 60 (in 2059).

Question 27

Generalisability in participant selection

Answer 27

refers to the extent to which we can apply the findings of our research to the target population we are interested in.

Question 28

sample bias in participant selection

Answer 28

A systematic error introduced by the sampling method.

Question 29

sample population in participant selection

Answer 29

the total group of individuals that an experimenter is interested in and from which a sample group might be drawn.

Question 30

sample in participant selection

Answer 30

A subsection of a target population that is representative of the population of research interest.

Question 31

identification of sample and population

Answer 31

identify target population and take a sample using one of 4 methods

Question 32

methods to sample participants

Answer 32

convenience, snowballing, random, stratified

Question 33

convenience sampling method

Answer 33

Selection of participants is based on the researcher’s accessibility to the participants or the participants’ availability.

Question 34

snowballing method

Answer 34

1- Researchers will form an initial sample by drafting any potential subjects from a population.
2- Even if only a couple subjects are found at first, researchers will ask those subjects to recruit other individuals for the study. They recruit subjects by encouraging them to come forward on their own. Study participants will only provide specific names of recruited individuals if there is no risk of embarrassment or a violation of privacy. Otherwise, study participants do not identify any names of other potential participants.
3- Current participants will continue to recruit others until the necessary sample size has been reached.

Question 35

random sampling method

Answer 35

Uses a carefully planned method that ensures every member of the population has a chance of being selected.

Question 36

stratified sampling method

Answer 36

1- Population is broken into groups based on characteristics relevant to research that they share - may require pre-testing.
2- Participants are randomly selected from each group in the same proportion as they appear in the whole population.
3- Sample should be highly representative of the population.

Question 37

independent variables

Answer 37

cause: the variable that an experimenter systematically changes. the variable being tested. The variable that is manipulated by researchers, not by other variables in the experiment

Question 38

dependant variables

Answer 38

effect: the variable that responds to the change made by the experimenter. changes measured in response to the manipulation of the independent variable

Question 39

control variables

Answer 39

a variable that is the same for the control group and the experiment group so that the changes observed are the result of the independent variable only. variables that may influence the DV and therefore the experimenter attempts to control or eliminate them

Question 40

extraneous variables

Answer 40

-a variable that is not under investigation in an experiment but may potentially affect the outcome or dependent variable and thus may influence results.
-Such potential influence on the outcome/dependent variable often requires that an extraneous variable be controlled during research

Question 41

confounding variables

Answer 41

-An unmeasured variable that influences both the supposed cause and effect. It alters the relation between dependent and independent variables.
-This type of variable can have an impact on the dependent variable, which can make it difficult to determine if the results are due to the influence of the independent variable, the confounding variable, or an interaction of the two.

Question 42

types of data

Answer 42

Objective or subjective
Qualitative or quantitative

Question 43

qualitative data

Answer 43

Qualitative (quality) data uses descriptive words to explain observations. Typically subjective. Examples include: open questions, interviews, focus groups, written response questionnaires .

Question 44

quantitative data

Answer 44

Quantitative (quantity) observations use measurements including numbers.
Can be objective – physiological Eg. HR, BP and subjective – check lists, rating scales (Likert scale)

Question 45

methods of qualitative data research

Answer 45

interviews, open-ended surveys

Question 46

methods of quantitative research

Answer 46

objective physiological measures, subjective measures

Question 47

subjective data

Answer 47

information that comes from opinions, perceptions or experiences

Question 48

objective data

Answer 48

information observed through your senses of hearing, sight, smell, and touch while assessing the patient

Question 49

structural organisation of the nervous system

Answer 49

CNS- brain and spinal chord
PNS- somatic and autonomic

Question 50

central nervous system

Answer 50

control centre consisting of your brain and spinal cord.

Question 51

peripheral nervous system

Answer 51

made up of the nerves that connect the CNS with receptors, muscles and glands

Question 52

functional divisions of the PNS

Answer 52

somatic and autonomic

Question 53

autonomic division

Answer 53

Sensory and motor neurons travelling to and from
Involuntary Muscles

Question 54

somatic division

Answer 54

Sensory and motor neurons travelling to and from
Voluntary Muscles

Question 55

sympathetic

Answer 55

Excitation – stress response, flight or fight

Question 56

parasympathetic

Answer 56

Excitation – stress response
, rest and digest

Question 57

what are neurons

Answer 57

Neurons are nerve cells.

Neurons are highly specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses (action potentials) from one neuron to another

Question 58

what are nerves

Answer 58

Bundles of neurons (nerve cells) are called nerves.

Question 59

sensory neurons

Answer 59

transmit nerve impulses from receptors to the CNS.
Sensory neurons enter at the back of the spinal cord

Question 60

motor neurons

Answer 60

transmit nerve impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles or glands).
Motor neurons enter the front of the spinal cord

Question 61

nervous system + PNS divisions

Answer 61

____CNS………………………..sympathetic
/……………..__autonomic____/
\_PNS __/………………………….\
……………..\_____ somatic…….paras.

Question 62

function of dendrites

Answer 62

often have many branches. They receive messages from other neurons and carry them towards the cell body.

Question 63

function of soma/cell body

Answer 63

The cell body contains the nucleus and many other cell organelles.

Question 64

function of axon

Answer 64

There is only one axon. It is often long and is unbranched for most of its length and end in an axon terminal. Axons carry nerve impulses away from the cell body.

Question 65

function of axon terminals

Answer 65

Button like ends of the axon that contact the dendrites of the next neuron or the effector that the neuron activates
Axon terminal contains vesicles which house chemicals called neurotransmitters

Question 66

function of myelin sheath

Answer 66

Fatty material that wraps around the axon of sensory and motor neurons.
Function:
Protects neuron
Insulates the neuron
Speeds up transmission of the nerve impulse

Question 67

function of sensory neurons

Answer 67

carry messages from receptors to CNS.

Question 68

function of motor neurons

Answer 68

carry messages from the CNS to effectors.

Question 69

function of interneurons

Answer 69

Interneuron neurons in the CNS carry information from sensory neurons to motor neurons

Question 70

direction of neural transmission

Answer 70

Dendrite -> cell body -> axon
Nerve impulses (action potentials) travel down neurons like electricity at very high speeds

Question 71

electro chemical signal in neural transmission

Answer 71

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit the electrical action potential across the synapse = electrochemical transmission

Question 72

synapse

Answer 72

A junction between two neurons is called a synapse – here the neurons do not touch, there is a very small gap between them.

Synapses occur between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron (neuron before the synapse) and dendrites of the post synaptic neuron (neuron after the synapse)

Question 73

role of neurotransmitters

Answer 73

The axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron contains vesicles.

Vesicles contain chemicals called
neurotransmitters

Question 74

contralateral

Answer 74

“Contralateral” is a term used in anatomy and biology to describe something that is located on or affecting the opposite side of the body.

Question 75

lateralisation

Answer 75

“Lateralization” refers to the specialization of certain functions or behaviours in either the left or right side of the brain

Question 76

left hemisphere

Answer 76

sensory information from right side of body, motor control of right side of body. Analytical, sequencing, words, comprehension, numbers, logic​

Question 77

right hemisphere

Answer 77

sensory information from left side of body, motor control of left side of body. Creative, music, art, drawing, recognition of faces + objects, perception, spatial

Question 78

lobes of the brain

Answer 78

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

Question 79

frontal lobe

Answer 79

made up of he primary motor cortex, pre-frontal cortex, and broca’s area

Question 80

parietal lobe

Answer 80

consists of he primary sensory cortex

Question 81

temporal lobe

Answer 81

made up of the Primary Auditory Cortex and Wernicke’s Area

Question 82

occipital lobe

Answer 82

contains primary visual cortex

Question 83

localisation of functions

Answer 83

the idea that certain functions (e.g. language, memory, etc.) have certain locations or areas within the brain

Question 84

broca’s area

Answer 84

Motor speech area - helps in movements required to form words

When there is an issue in the Broca’s area, a patient can sequence words to make meaningful speech but has difficulty producing the words. This is called Broca’s aphasia.

Question 85

wernicke’s area

Answer 85

temporal lobe
Wernicke’s Area - allows for the production of speech that is comprehensible by others. Sequencing of words so that sentences make sense.
damage to Wernicke’s area results in a patient who can produce speech but cannot form sequences of speech that make sense to others.

Question 86

contemporary methods to improve knowledge of brain structure and function

Answer 86

EEG, CT, MRI, fMRI

Question 87

EEG

Answer 87

stands for Electroencephalography
method type: External – non imaging
measures whole brainwave activity and different state of consciousness.
how: Electrodes on skull

Question 88

CT

Answer 88

stands for Computerised Axial Tomography Scan (also called CAT scan)
method type: Still image
Helps identify abnormal structures or plan/monitor treatments.
how: X-ray radiation

Question 89

MRI

Answer 89

stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging
method type: Still image
Helps identify abnormal structures or plan/monitor treatments.
how: Strong magnetic field and radio frequency pulses

Question 90

fMRI

Answer 90

stands for Functional Magnetic Resonance Image
methods type: Dynamic image
Shows brain function – identifies specific brain areas activated when completing specific tasks
how: Measures oxygen consumption by neurons

Question 91

structure focused methods of brain imaging

Answer 91

CT and MRI focus on the structure of the brain.

Question 92

function focused methods of brain imaging

Answer 92

fMRI, EEG measure brain activity and focuses on the function of the brain.

Question 93

developmental stages across the lifespan

Answer 93

prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle age, older age

Question 94

what is studied in physical development

Answer 94

changes in the body

Question 95

what is studied in cognitive development

Answer 95

changes in thinking, perceiving, remembering, and language

Question 96

what is studied in social emotional development

Answer 96

changes in the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions of ourselves and others as relationships form

Question 97

what is lifespan development

Answer 97

Lifespan development refers to the age related changes that occur from birth to death.
Change can involve gaining or losing something. e.g. menarche (first occurrence of menstruation) vs menopause (menstruation stops)

Question 98

plasticity

Answer 98

Plasticity: the ability of the brain’s synapses to be modified.

Question 99

adaptive plasticity

Answer 99

Adaptive plasticity: the ability of brain to change, adapt and grow throughout life.

Question 100

developmental plasticity

Answer 100

Developmental plasticity: the development and consolidation of neural pathways in babies, children and adolescents

Question 101

role of brain plasticity in infancy

Answer 101

The development of the nervous system starts before birth when the brain and spinal cord are formed. Development then goes through five stages. Generally, an infant’s brain will have more plasticity than an adult’s brain. This is referred to as developmental plasticity- the ability of synapses to be modified

Question 102

stages of plasticity

Answer 102

Proliferation
Migration
Circuit formation
Synaptic pruning
Myelination

Question 103

proliferation

Answer 103

unborn baby’s cells that will become neurons divide and multiply creating 250,000 cells a minute

Question 104

migration

Answer 104

as an infant: the newly formed neurons move outward to their specified destination in the brain.

Question 105

circuit formation

Answer 105

axons of the neurons branch out to target cells and form synapses with them.
e.g. Axons for motor neurons grow to the spinal cord where the neurons form synapses with other neurons in this location.

Question 106

synaptic pruning

Answer 106

the loss of excess neurons and synapses usually formed in infancy and childhood. It occurs between infancy and childhood, with a second wave in early adolescence.
Neurons pruned include those not connected to neighbouring cells and those that misfire with surrounding neurons

Question 107

myelination

Answer 107

the production of the white fatty covering that insulates a neuron’s axon preventing interference between neurons, speeds up neural transmission, and protects the axon.

Myelination begins before a baby is born and does not finish until around the age of 23 years. Neurons in the lower brain structures are myelinated first followed by the cerebral hemispheres staring with the occipital lobe, then the temporal and parietal lobes and finally the frontal lobe.

Question 108

brain plasticity in adolescence

Answer 108

During adolescence in humans there is a large amount of development in the following structures in the brain
-Cerebellum
-Amygdala
-Corpus callosum
-Frontal Lobe

Question 109

effects of changes in the cerebellum during adolescence

Answer 109

There is an increase in the number of neurons and synapses in the cerebellum- the part of the brain responsible for balance, muscle tone and performance of motor skills.

An underdeveloped cerebellum and the growth spurt in puberty may account for the ‘clumsy teenager’ observation.

Question 110

effects of changes in the amygdala during adolescence

Answer 110

The amygdala becomes more active in teenagers. The amygdala is associated with autonomic responses associated with fear, emotional responses, processing and consolidating memory, hormonal secretions.
The hyper emotional states of the teenager and bad decision making may be due to relying on the amygdala to process information rather than the still developing prefrontal cortex.

Question 111

effects of changes in the corpus callosum during adolescence

Answer 111

The corpus callosum thickens and there is an increase in the number of connections (nerve fibres) between the two hemispheres.

Question 112

effects of changes in the frontal lobe during adolescence

Answer 112

The frontal lobe of the left hemisphere is the last part of the brain to undergo the process of myelination.

The last part of the brain to develop is the frontal cortex responsible for higher level problem solving, complex planning, impulse control, risk management and critical thinking.

Question 113

when is infancy

Answer 113

birth- 2 years old

Question 114

when is childhood

Answer 114

2- 10 years old

Question 115

when is adolescence

Answer 115

10-20 years old

Question 116

when is early adulthood

Answer 116

20- 40 years old

Question 117

when is middle age

Answer 117

40 - 65

Question 118

when older age

Answer 118

65 + years old

Question 119

what is cognitive development

Answer 119

refers to changes in thinking, perceiving, remembering, language over a person’s lifespan.

Question 120

when + what was Piaget’s theory

Answer 120

Theory of Cognitive Development 1936

Question 121

what did Piaget’s theory say

Answer 121

that as children interact with the world around them they reflect on their prior experiences, continually construct and add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and they adapt their previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

Question 122

describe Piaget’s research

Answer 122

-Cross Sectional research – Piaget tested the cognitive abilities of subjects from different age cohorts.
-Piaget carried out naturalistic observation of his own three babies
-From these observations he wrote qualitative diary descriptions charting the child’s state of development.

conducted clinical interviews and observations of older children who could understand questions and hold conversations.
Subjects undertook tasks in which they had to display a competency. If the subjects were able to complete the tasks correctly or describe the correct underlying thought processes Piaget concluded they had attained that cognitive skill.

Question 123

what are the 4 Stages of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Answer 123

Sensorimotor stage: 0 to 2 years
Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 years
Formal operational stage: 11 + years

Question 124

what ages does the sensorimotor stage encapsulate

Answer 124

0-2

Question 125

how do children explore the world during the sensorimotor stage

Answer 125

Infants construct understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (e.g., vision and touch) with motor (movement) abilities.
Babies use their senses to learn about their world through exploratory play

Question 126

what is object permenance

Answer 126

the realisation that objects still exist, even if it they cannot be perceived (seen, heard, touched or smelled) in any way.

Question 127

what does an infants development look like at 1 month old + what stage

Answer 127

Right after birth, infants have no concept of anything outside themselves, they experience the world through their reflexes e.g., sucking
sensory motor

Question 128

what does an infants development look like at 1-4 months old + what stage

Answer 128

An infant chances on a new behaviour, and repeats it over and over, aiding in the development of a schema.
Infants still have no sense of object permanence. If they can no longer see an object its “out of sight, out of mind”.
sensorimotor

Question 129

how do we test an infants object permanence at 1-4 months old

Answer 129

A toy is shown to the baby and then is placed under a napkin as the baby watches.
The baby typically follows the toy with their eyes as it disappears under the napkin but no active search is instigated.

Question 130

what does an infants development look like at 4-8 months old + what stage

Answer 130

Babies start to observe and interact more with their surroundings helping them learn about the permanence of things outside themselves.
If an object leaves their line of sight, they will look where the object fell.
If the infant puts an object down and turns away, they can find the object again.
If a blanket covers part of a toy, they can find the toy.
sensorimotor

Question 131

what does an infants development look like at 8-12 months old + what stage

Answer 131

True object permanence starts to emerge.
Although at 8 months an infant could find a toy when it was hidden at point A, when the same toy was hidden at point B, infants would again look for the toy at point A.
According to Piaget, infants are still unable to follow displacements to different hiding places.
sensorimotor

Question 132

how do we test an infants object permanence at 8-12 months old

Answer 132

A toy is first placed under napkin A for a series of trials and the infant retrieves it each time
then the toy is hidden under napkin B, next to the first, in plain view of the child
despite having watched the object disappear under the new napkin, the infant reaches under the original napkin
-Infant continues to search at the first hiding location after the object is hidden in the new location
The object is still subjectively understood
The object remains associated with a previously successful schema.

Question 133

how do we test an infants object permanence at 12-18 months old

Answer 133

Infant watches the researcher’s hand hide a toy from view. The researcher’s hand then deposits the toy under the napkin and removes their hand. The infant looks for the toy in the hand, but not under the napkin.
Mastered by 18 months.

Question 134

what are limitations of Piaget’s study

Answer 134

underestimated young minds
mistaking lack of performance for lack of attainment
Failure to Consider Cultural / Educational Background

Question 135

describe the limitation of Piaget’s study of underestimating young minds

Answer 135

Recently, researchers in object permanence have demonstrated that with cues,children as young as four months can demonstrate an understanding of object permanence.

Question 136

describe the limitation of Piaget’s study of mistaking lack of performance for lack of attainment

Answer 136

Young babies may have failed to perform as they may not
have the physical coordination necessary to search for the item.
Have an interest in finding the hidden object.
Piaget may have mistaken this for a lack of cognition

Question 137

describe the limitation of Piaget’s study of Failure to Consider Cultural / Educational Background

Answer 137

Sample: aboriginal children from remote communities and those with exposure to white culture
Findings- white children and aboriginal children demonstrated similar cognitive abilities at similar ages but only if they had similar educational experiences as provided through exposure to white culture
Cross cultural evaluations on cognitive development using the Piagetian tradition has ceased as it has been established that formal schooling plays a large role in the development of thinking required to complete the tasks

Question 138

describe the Piagetian stage of preoperational

Answer 138

Children continue to build on their concepts of how an object is represented, begin to think symbolically using words and pictures to represent objects, Grow their language skills

Question 139

what ages does the preoperational stage encapsulate

Answer 139

2-7

Question 140

what are the features of the preoperational stage

Answer 140

Centration
Animism
Seriation
Egocentrism
Symbolic thinking

Question 141

what is Centration

Answer 141

The focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.
Applying focus on one aspect of an event or problem even when multiple aspects are important

Question 142

what is an example of centration

Answer 142

when the child focuses on the height of the liquid in the container to determine the amount of liquid while ignoring the width of the container.

Question 143

what is Animism

Answer 143

The belief that inanimate objects (such as toys and teddy bears) have human feelings and intentions

Question 144

what is seriation

Answer 144

arranging things – according to agraduated order.

Question 145

what are some seriation factors

Answer 145

Size: length, mass, height
Colour: lightest to darkest colour
Taste: sweet to sour
Sound:soft to loud, high pitch to low pitch
Touch:smoothest to roughest

Question 146

what is egocentrism

Answer 146

The inability to perceive the world from another’s perspective

Question 147

what is an example of egocentrism

Answer 147

A young child stands in front of a TV blocking the view of their older siblings. they assumes that if they can see the TV others around them can also see the TV.

Question 148

describe the three mountains test (egocentrism)

Answer 148

Experimenter shows a child a model of three mountains that have landmarks among them.
A child sits at one location and the doll sits at another.
The experimenter asks the child to describe what the doll would see.
The child is given photographs depicting the view from each location around the table and is asked to select the view the doll will see.

The egocentric child will describe the view they see and select the photo based on their own experience with the scene not the doll’s.

Question 149

what is symbolic thinking

Answer 149

Children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols.
A child can use an object to represent something else.
Role-playing becomes important e.g., Children play the roles of “mum,” “dad,” “doctor,” and many other characters.
allows children to use fantasy and symbolism in their play.

Question 150

describe the concrete operational stage

Answer 150

Piaget noticed children could use concrete objects to effectively develop systematic rules or ideas, but they were not yet capable of thinking abstractly.
developing logical thoughts about an object, but only if they can manipulate it (concrete).

Question 151

what ages does the concrete operational stage encapsulate

Answer 151

7-11

Question 152

what is conservation (concrete operational)

Answer 152

Conservation is the understanding that things stay the same in quantity even though their appearance changes.
To understand that redistributing material does not affect its mass, number or volume.
The ability to solve conservation problems signals the transition to theconcrete operational stage.

Question 153

what is Decentering

Answer 153

distinguishes concrete operational thinking from preoperational thinking.
Decentering means a child can step back and analyse a situation in more than one way and therefore can conserve.

Question 154

what is the difference between centration and decentering

Answer 154

Centration: focusing on one aspect of a situation
Decentering: analysing the situation in more than one way.

Question 155

Conservation of Volume Attainment Test

Answer 155

water is put into two same- sized cups, state there is the same amount in each, then poor one into a taller glass in front of the child, ask which one has more water than the first one, or do the containers have the same amount of water? child will see water is taller and state it is more

Question 156

describe the Conservation of Mass Attainment Test

Answer 156

two bits of plasticine in the same shape are presented- preoperational child says A and B have equal mass.
Plasticine B’s shape changes. Preoperational child now claims B has more mass, they do not have the cognitive skill of conservation
A child that has reached the concrete operational stage understands that the mass of the plasticine remains the same regardless of its shape, they have mastered the skill of conservation.

Question 157

describe the Conservation of Number Attainment Test

Answer 157

two rows of coins are set out identically, child recognises they have the same number. one row is spread out wider than the first, preoperational child now says this has more. row is then moved to be shorter than first, preoperational child says this is less.
A child that has reached the concrete operational stage understands that the number of dots remains the same regardless of their positioning.

Question 158

describe the Conservation of Length Attainment Test

Answer 158

two rods put next to each other- same length and same position. child says rod A and B have equal length. Rod A’s position relative to rod B’s changes. Preoperational child now claims rod A is longer than rod B.
A child that has reached the concrete operational stage understands that the length of the rods remains the same regardless of the rod’s position.

Question 159

describe the Piagetian Formal Operational Stage

Answer 159

In this stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory, children are capable of more abstract thinking.
Abstract concepts such as the future, justice and values are engaging and easily understood.
Children reflect internally and can use hypothetical reasoning.
Piaget noticed they could find several potential solutions for a problem, and they could solve problems systemically.

Question 160

what ages does the formal operational stage encapsulate

Answer 160

11+ Years

Question 161

describe the Abstract Thinking Attainment Test: The pendulum Test

Answer 161

The method involved a length of string and a set of weights. Participants had to consider three factors (variables) the length of the string, the heaviness of the weight and the strength of push.
The task was to work out which factor was most important in determining the speed of swing of the pendulum- can vary the length of the pendulum string, and vary the weight. They can measure the pendulum speed by counting the number of swings per minute.
Hypothetical reasoning: begin with a hypothesis and deduce testable inferences
Shows the ability to think abstractly.

Question 162

describe language understanding at 12 months

Answer 162

-understand around 10 words
-respond to their name
-recognise greetings and gestures - hi, bye-bye
-recognise a few familiar people and objects- blankie, mummy
-make eye contact

Question 163

describe language speaking at 12 months

Answer 163

-start to use sounds, gestures, and a
few words
-continue to babble
-copy different sounds and noises

Question 164

describe language understanding at 18 months

Answer 164

-up to 50 words and some short phrases
-can follow simple instructions - throw the ball
-point to familiar objects when named
-point to some pictures in familiar books

Question 165

describe language speaking at 18 months

Answer 165

-6-20 single words- some easier to
understand than others, but
becoming more consistent
-copy lots of words and noises
-name a few body parts
-use objects in pretend play- e.g. hold
toy phone to their ear and say hello

Question 166

describe language understanding at 2 years

Answer 166

-follow simple 2 part instructions- e.g. ‘give me the ball and car’
-respond to simple ‘wh’ questions- what, where
-point to several body parts and pictures in books when named
-understand when an object is in and on something

Question 167

describe language speaking at 2 years

Answer 167

-say more than 50 single words
-put two words together- .g. ‘bye teddy’ ‘no ball’
-use their tone of voice to ask a question
-say no when they don’t want something
-use most vowel sounds and a variety on consonants
-start to use ‘mine’ and ‘my’

Question 168

describe language understanding at 3 years

Answer 168

-follow more complex 2 part
instructions- e.g. give me the teddy
and throw the ball
-understand simple ‘wh’ questions
-understand the concepts of same
and different
-sort items into groups when asked-
e.g. toys vs food
-recognise some basic colours

Question 169

describe language speaking at 3 years

Answer 169

-say 4-5 words in a sentence
-use a variety of words for names,
actions, locations, and descriptions
-ask questions using ‘what’ ‘where’
‘who’
-talk about something in the past but
may use ‘-ed’ a lot
-have a conversation, but may not
take turns or stay on topic

Question 170

describe language understanding at 4 years

Answer 170

-answer more questions about daily
tasks
-understand most wh’ questions
including those about a story they
have recently heard
-understand some numbers
-show an awareness that some words start or finish with the same sounds

Question 171

describe language speaking at 4 years

Answer 171

-use words such as ‘and’ ‘but’ and ‘because’ to make longer sentences
-describe recent events such as
morning routines
-ask lots of questions
-use personal pronouns (he/she/they,
we/us) and negotiations (don’t/can’t)
-count to five and name a few colours

Question 172

describe language understanding at 5 years

Answer 172

-follow three part instructions- e.g. put on your shoes, grab your backpack, and line up outside
-understand time related words- e.g. before, after, now, later
-start thinking about the meaning of words when learning
-understand instructions without stopping to listen
-begin to recognise some letters, sounds, and numbers

Question 173

describe language speaking at 5 years

Answer 173

use well formed sentences to be understood by most people
take turns in increasingly longer conversations
tell simple short stories with a beginning, middle, and end
use past and future verbs correctly -e.g. went, will go
use most speech sounds but may have difficulties with ‘s’ ‘r’ ‘l’ ‘th’

Question 174

define Physical development

Answer 174

refers to changes that occur to the body.

Question 175

what are gross motor skills

Answer 175

Large bodily movements made with the arms, legs, feet, or entire body.
E.g. holding head up, crawling, running, skipping, swimming,

Question 176

what are fine motor skills

Answer 176

The coordination of small muscles, in movements
Usually involves the synchronization of hands and fingers with the eyes using the precision grip between thumb and fingers.
E.g., drawing, writing, tying shoelaces, holding a fork and knife

Question 177

what did Harlow study and when

Answer 177

1958
STUDY: Emotion over physiological needs with Rhesus monkeys

Question 178

what was the aim of Harlow’s experiments

Answer 178

investigate whether provision of physiological needs (food) or contact comfort (emotion) is more important in the formation of attachment.

Question 179

describe the variables and research design of Harlow’s experiments

Answer 179

Research Design: Experimental
IV- provision of food by either a cloth mother or wire mother.
DV – amount of contact time spent with cloth and wire mother.

Question 180

Harlow’s procedure

Answer 180

8 new born rhesus monkeys separated from their mothers immediately after birth and placed in either the first condition= wire mother had a milk bottle and cloth mother did not, or second condition= cloth mother had a milk bottle and wire mother did not.

Question 181

what were Harlow’s findings

Answer 181

Rhesus monkeys spent more time with their contact comfort surrogate, than their wire surrogate, regardless of which one provided food

Question 182

what was Harlow’s conclusion

Answer 182

In rhesus monkeys attachment is not just based on having physical needs met but is based on having emotional needs met; contact comfort is more important than feeding in the formation of the infant/mother attachment bond.

Question 183

what were some criticisms of Harlow’s experiments

Answer 183

-Generalisations from animal behaviour to human behaviour should not be made
-humans are more complex than monkeys so may not relate
-the monkeys were taken outside their natural environment which could have made them behave differently

Question 184

describe Harlow’s Stressful situations and surrogate preference

Answer 184

Infant monkeys turned to inanimate surrogate mothersfor comfort when they were faced with new and scary situations.
When placed in a novel environment (an alarming noise-making toy) with a surrogate mother, infant monkeys would explore the area, run back to the surrogate mother when startled, and then venture out to explore again.
Without a surrogate mother, the infants were paralyzed with fear, huddled in a ball sucking their thumbs.

Question 185

define deprivation

Answer 185

loss or damage to attachment

Question 186

define privation

Answer 186

never forming/failure to develop an attachment bond

Question 187

describe Harlow’s privation study

Answer 187

Harlow socially isolated monkeys from birth for three, six, nine and twelve months, then introduced them to non-deprived monkeys to see what affect the lack of attachment formation had on behaviour. they
-engaged in bizarre behavior clutching their bodies and rocking compulsively, -some indulged in self-mutilation, tearing hair out, scratching, and biting their own arms and legs
-were initially scared of the non-deprived monkeys
-became aggressive towards the non-deprived monkeys
-were unable to communicate or socialize properly
-Were bullied by the non-deprived monkeys

Question 188

what was the conclusion of Harlow’s privation study

Answer 188

Privation is permanently damaging in rhesus monkeys.
Monkeys kept in isolation for 3 months were the least affected, but those in isolation for a year never recovered the effects of privation.

Question 189

Ethical issues in Harlow’s research: Use of animal models in research

Answer 189

Because of inadequate motor capabilities human new borns are not suited to affection research.
By the time human babies have measurable motor responses the antecedent determining conditions cannot be defined, having been lost in a range of confounding variables.
Due to their greater maturity at birth and rapid growth monkey babies are far more suitable. Precise motor measurements can be taken from two- ten days of age.
There is no fundamental differences between affection responses between the two species e.g., nursing, contact, clinging, and even visual and auditory exploration.
Perception, fear, frustration, and learning capability follows very similar developmental sequences in rhesus monkeys and human children.

Question 190

application of Harlow’s findings

Answer 190

Ethical issues in Harlow’s research: Use of animal models in research

Question 191

what did Bowlby’s theory relate to + date

Answer 191

1969
attachment

Question 192

ASCMI

Answer 192

adaptive
social releases
critical period
monotropic attachment
internal working model

Question 193

describe ‘adaptive’ in relation to Bowlby’s attachment theory

Answer 193

Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment suggests that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, to help them to survive.
Attachment is adaptive as it enhances the infant’s chance of survival.

Question 194

describe ‘social releases’ in relation to Bowlby’s attachment theory

Answer 194

Social releasers are infant behaviours that ensure proximity of the infant to their attachment target.
Increasing attachment of the infant to the attachment figure reduces the chance of the infant experiencing danger

Innate social releasers include
smiling
babbling
crying
Cooing
Round face with big eyes

Question 195

describe ‘critical period’ in relation to Bowlby’s attachment theory

Answer 195

Critical period: Proposed acritical periodof 2.5 years for developing attachment. If attachment has not developed during this time, then it may not happen at all.

Sensitive Period: Bowlby later proposed a sensitive period of up to 5 years for attachment to be formed.

Question 196

describe ‘monotropic attachment’ in relation to Bowlby’s attachment theory

Answer 196

Monotropy: a child has an innate (i.e., inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure.
This concept of monotropy suggests that there is one relationship which is more important than all the rest.

Question 197

describe ‘internal working model’ in relation to Bowlby’s attachment theory

Answer 197

The internal working model- based on the relationship with a primary caregiver- becomes a prototype for all future social relationships and allows individuals to predict, control and manipulate interactions with others.

Main features of the internal working model:
a model of others as being trustworthy
a model of the self as valuable
a model of the self as effective when interacting with others

A faulty internal working model may have a detrimental impact on future relationships.

Question 198

what is a critical period in development

Answer 198

a narrower period of time beyond which if a particular experience does not take place the phenomenon will not appear.

Question 199

what is a sensitive period in development period in development

Answer 199

periods of time for optimal development in a particular area.

Question 200

what is an internal working model

Answer 200

a cognitive framework comprising mental representations for understanding the world, self and others, based on the relationship with a primary caregiver.

Question 201

(according to Bowlby) what is maternal deprivation

Answer 201

maternal deprivation to refer to the separation or loss of the mother as well as failure to develop an attachment.

Question 202

describe Bowlby’s Maternal deprivation Theory

Answer 202

Bowlby argued that a child should receive the continuous care of their attachment figure for approximately the first two years of life.
If attachment is broken or disrupted during the critical two ½ year period, the child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences of maternal deprivation. This risk continues until the age of five years.

Question 203

what was Bowlby’s Maternal deprivation Hypothesis

Answer 203

Hypothesis: Continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e., mother) could result in long-term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant such as-
delinquency
reduced intelligence
increased aggression
depression
affectionless psychopathy

Question 204

what is affectionless psychopathy

Answer 204

an inability to show affection or concern for others. Individuals act on impulse with little regard for the consequences of their actions e.g., showing no guilt for antisocial behaviour.

Question 205

what were the strengths of Bowlby’s attachment theory

Answer 205

Empirically based theory (evidence / research based)
Explains development of social relationships
The theory enables prediction of future behaviours

Question 206

Criticisms of Bowlby’s Attachment theory

Answer 206

-infants may show indicators of attachment to a variety of attachment figures – fathers, siblings, grand parents, discrediting monotropic attachment as proposed by Bowlby.
-Bowlby did not distinguish between deprivation (loss and damage to an attachment) and privation (failure to develop attachment)
-Rutter argued that privation and deprivation have different effects.
-Rutter stressed the quality of the attachment bond is the most important factor

Question 207

applications of Bowlby’s attachment theory

Answer 207

Changes in hospital policy – hospitals extended visiting hours for parents and care givers to focus on forming attachments.

Attachment therapies, in clinical applications, try to foster greater security and trust through goal corrected partnerships

Informs child welfare and child care decisions made by social workers and courts.

Question 208

when and what did Ainsworth study

Answer 208

Attachment Style
1978

Question 209

what was the aim, sample, and design of Ainsworth’s study

Answer 209

Study Aim: To determine the influence of maternal behaviour on the child’s attachment style.

Sample: 100 American Infants and their mothers from middle class families.

Research Design: Observational Study

Question 210

describe the procedure of Ainsworth’s strange situations study

Answer 210

a series of eight observed episodes lasting approximately 3 minutes each, whereby a mother, child and stranger are introduced, separated and reunited in a controlled lab setting containing chairs and toys.

Question 211

what is type A attachment style (Ainsworth)

Answer 211

Avoidant
Caregiver is insensitive and rejecting of the infant’s needs. Caregiver may withdraw from helping during difficult tasks and is often unavailable during times of the infant’s emotional distress. e.g., Post-natal depression, drug affected mother and chronic illness of mother. Rejecting of baby.

Question 212

what is type B attachment style (Ainsworth)

Answer 212

secure
Caregiver is sensitive to infant’s signals and responds appropriately to their needs. Mother has the time resources and desire to mother. Consistent and supportive care.

Question 213

what is type C attachment style (Ainsworth)

Answer 213

Resistant
Infant receives an inconsistent level of response to their needs from the caregiver. e.g., mother has multiple kids or is working long hours. Inconsistent care.

Question 214

% of attachment styles

Answer 214

type A- Anxious Avoidant (Insecure)
~20%
Type B- Secure Attachment
~70%
Type C- Anxious Resistant (Insecure)
~10%

Question 215

Contributions of Ainsworth’s research to the study of Attachment

Answer 215

The strange situation test provides a highly controlled standard diagnostic tool used to measure strength and type of attachment between caregivers and their infants.

The strange situation test can be replicate enhancing the repeatability and generalisability of its findings.

Question 216

Weaknesses of Ainsworth’s research

Answer 216

Culturally biased -> created + tested in the USA- Ainsworth assumed that the strange situation is suitable across different cultures
Observation was only a snap shot- caregiver or infant might distort their behaviour due to the artificial laboratory situation
Unethical -> causes distress in the infant

Question 217

what are the three basic components to Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Answer 217

schema, assimilation, accommodation

Question 218

what is a schema

Answer 218

A category of knowledge that helps us understand and interpret the world.

Question 219

what is assimilation

Answer 219

the process of using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

Question 220

what is accommodation

Answer 220

The adaption (branching) of existing schemas, as a result of new information or experiences.
Happens when the existing schema does not work and needs to be adapted to deal with a new object or situation.

Question 221

what is equilibrium

Answer 221

when a person’s background knowledge allows them to deal with new information through assimilation.

Question 222

what is disequilibrium

Answer 222

The state that occurs when a person is unable to fit new information into their existing schemas.

Question 223

who is Phineas Gage and what happened to him

Answer 223

a famous brain-injury survivor- when working as a railroad construction worker Gage’s head was impaled by an iron bar, which ripped through his skull and the front of his brain.

Question 224

what was learned from Phineas Gage

Answer 224

The injury changed his behaviour and personality, he became argumentative and angry and knew no social inhibitions.

Provided the first evidence that the prefrontal cortex was involved in personality and regulation of behaviour.

Question 225

who is Walter Freeman and what did he do

Answer 225

an American physician who specialized in lobotomy- typically performed on people with serious mental illnesses.

Question 226

describe Walter Freeman’s lobotomies

Answer 226

Under a local anesthetic an icepick-like instrument was inserted above the patient’s eyeball.

Using a hammer, the icepick was hammered into the thin bone above the eye and wriggled back and forth to sever the connections to the prefrontal cortex in the frontal lobes of the brain.

Freeman performed lobotomies on about 3,500 patients, including 19 children. The youngest was just four years old.

Question 227

what were the outcome/s of Walter Freeman’s lobotomies

Answer 227

For the survivors, some were left with no noticeable differences, but others were crippled for life or lived in a persistent vegetative state.

Patients were reduced in emotion/personality and became depersonalized.

The lobotomy removed what made them human.

Question 228

who was Genie W

Answer 228

a 13 year old girl imprisoned by her abusive father (dark room, chained to a potty chair, caged in bed) since 15/20 months, severely disrupting her development