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BIO3A: Processes 2 Patterns > S3: W10 (Prof. Kelsey) > Flashcards

S3: W10 (Prof. Kelsey) Flashcards

1
Q

Background of Biogeography attributes? (6)

A

• Naturalists were biogeographers.
• Distribution & vicariance.
• Up to 1820, the Earth was stasis.
• According to them, species couldn’t all fit in the Ark (landing site?).
• 19th century themes.
• Selection processes are applied differently in new biotas.

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2
Q

People involved in research about distribution & vicariance? (4)

A

• Lamark (giraffa hypothesis).
• Lyell (geology).
• Darwin.
• Wallace.

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3
Q

List of the 19th century themes? (3)

A

• Distinctness of regional biotas.
• Species origin & spread.
• Factors responsible for species distribution.

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4
Q

Benefit of Darwin’s trip?

A

Gave him a good context for thinking what was where & enabled him to compare between different …

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5
Q

Alfred Wallace attributes? (3)

A

• Did more trips than Darwin.
• Places included Amazon river basis & Malaysia archipelago.
• Wallace’s line.

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6
Q

Alfred Wallace?

A

= father of Biogeography.

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7
Q

Question asked under Alfred Wallace in relation to Wallace’s line?

A

Why do we see different complements even though there is no physical, geographical barrier?

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8
Q

Wallace’s line?

A

= imaginary line where different species exist on either side of the line.

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9
Q

What man-made structure can act as a boundary?

A

Roads.

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10
Q

Biogeography attributes? (5)

A

• Initially it started with zoogeography & phytogeography.

• Is not ecology.

• Involves taxonomy, evolution, history of organisms.

• Thinks about how the species assemblage came to be.

• Working in a historical past trying to figure out what will happen in the future.

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11
Q

What does Biogeography focus on?

A

Focuses on contingency - taxonomy, history, evolutionary events.

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12
Q

How does Biogeography predict/explain how “now” came about?

A

By using history to figure out how “now”/current species assemblage came to be.

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13
Q

Biogeography vs Ecology regarding what they focus on? (4)

A

● Biogeography
• focuses on contingency.
• focuses on history.

● Ecology
• focuses on interaction, structure & function.
• focuses on predictability.

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14
Q

Biogeography focuses? (2)

A

• Contingency - taxonomy, history, evolutionary events.

• History.

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15
Q

Ecology focuses? (2)

A

• Interaction, structure & function.

• Predictability.

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16
Q

Biogeography key word?

A

Evolutionary history.

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17
Q

Ecology keyword?

A

Predictability.

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18
Q

Contingency?

A

= future event (“now”) that is possible but can’t be predicted/planned for with certainty.

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19
Q

Miocene attributes? (3)

A

• Expansion & contraction of grasslands with forests.

• As forests expand, grasslands contract & vice versa.

• Affected how many species were present at each occurrence.

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20
Q

Eg of how expansion & contraction during the Miocene affected how many species were present at each occurrence?

A

More forests, ie., expansion of forests caused an increase in browsers.

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21
Q

Factors that affect Savannas? (2)

A

• Fire.
• Large herbivores (esp. elephants).

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22
Q

Large herbivores, particularly elephants, in Savannas/ Elephants in Savannas? (5)

A

• Push over trees.
• Disperse fruits.
• Terrify other species.
• Affect animals that appear on a landscape.
• Ecosystem engineer.

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23
Q

Fire in Savannas attributes? (2)

A

• Cretaceous period.

• Fire was a selection pressure that affected plant assemblages (flowering plants, when & how did angiosperms end up where they are today?).

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24
Q

Savanna locations? (3)

A

• Predominantly in Africa.

• Northern Australia.

• South America (Brazil & Argentina).

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25
Q

How were Savannas distributed in the past?

A
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26
Q

Questions to ask as a Biogeographer (biogeographic perspective) when you see the Image of Savanna with springbok and cattle egrets? (6)

A

● How did this landscape evolve?

● Why is there a grass/tree coexistence?

● What are the evolutionary processes that are at play?

● Did those evolutionary processes change over time?

● How/Is there a grazer/browser balance?

● Large scale climate change through time?

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27
Q

What do we need to do to answer biogeographic questions? (4)

A

● Observe, record & measure geographic ranges of species.

● Explain how these ranges came to where they currently are.

● Search for commonality in pattern (congruity suggests common history).

● Explain patterns at all levels (diversity gradient).

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28
Q

Diversity gradient?

A

=

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29
Q

Questions Biogeographers ask? (6)

A

● Why is a species confined to its present geographic region?

● Where are close relatives found?

● What prevents species from colonizing other areas?

● Why are some species restricted & others widespread?

● How have historical events shaped current distribution (think migration)?

● Why are some areas species-rich & others species-poor?

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30
Q

Eg of Why some areas are species-rich & others species-poor?

A

Cape Floristic region.

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31
Q

Explain Cape Floristic region?

A

It is species rich due to climate stability which caused heterogenous soils in the region enabling species diversification.

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32
Q

What does Diversity gradient involve? (3)

A

• Area on the globe with its latitude.
• Latitude.
• Diversity.

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33
Q

Explain illustration/drawing on Diversity gradient? (2)

A

● High diversity at the equator.

● Low diversity at the poles.

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34
Q

List sub-disciplines of Biogeography? (5)

A

• Historical biogeography.
• Ecological biogeography.
• Island biogeography.
• Urban biogeography.
• Conservation biogeography.

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35
Q

Sub-disciplines of Biogeography layout? (5)

A

Historical biogeography
__________|____________
| |
Ecological Island
__________|________
| |
Urban Conservation

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36
Q

Historical biogeography?

A

= involves taxonomy, systematics, evolution, geography, palaeogeography, palaeoecology & palaeoclimate.

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37
Q

Ecological biogeography?

A

= studies the range of communities & assumes that communities move as a unit.

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38
Q

Questions asked in Ecological biogeography? (3)

A

● Are communities real?

● If communities are real, do they persist through time?

● How do they persist through time?

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39
Q

What is a community according to Ecological biogeography?

A

= species assemblages in geographic regions.

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40
Q

Explain Graph that was shown with lines of different colours? (7)

A

● x-axis = environmental/geographic gradient.

● y-axis = density of individuals.

● Lines = species or community.

● Shows how species change over different gradients in a geographic space.

● Density is not the same for each species.

● Single dimension.

● As you move through gradients, there is change in physiology, etc, depending on what you define your geographic gradient as (i.e., whether it’s savanna, forest, etc).

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41
Q

Island biogeography?

A

= seeks to explain biodiversity on islands.

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42
Q

Island biogeography attribute?

A

Has been extrapolated to habitat patches.

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43
Q

Urban biogeography?

A

= open-space planning & biodiversity management in urban areas.

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44
Q

Conservation biogeography?

A

= design planning of conservation areas.

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45
Q

Conservation biogeography attribute?

A

Pulls everything together.

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46
Q

Spatial units in biogeography?

A

= a region/realm.

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47
Q

Spatial units in biogeography attributes? (5)

A

• Further subdivided into sub-regions, provinces & districts.

• Non-scientists think about geographical boundaries.

• Scientists think about the ecosystems that might span those boundaries.

• Regions are equivalent to a biome in ecology, but it is not the same.

• Biogeographic units are defined by their species assemblages (NOT vegetation maps like biomes).

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48
Q

Why are regions not the same as biomes in ecology?

A
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49
Q

What are biogeographic units defined by?

A

Their species assemblages.

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50
Q

Slide of dots attributes? (2)

A

• I’ve gone from one species assemblage to another through observation.

• Explains Wallace’s line.

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51
Q

African map attributes? (2)

A

• Biogeographic regions overlap onto continents.

• Fine tunes.

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52
Q

Keyword for biogeographic regions?

A

Species assemblage.

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53
Q

Things to note about species assemblage? (2)

A

• Think about how they’ve changed through time in taxa/groups (herbivores, carnivores).

• Biogeographic patterns.

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54
Q

Distribution maps attributes? (7)

A

● Usually portrayed as a 2D image of occurrence.

● Help you figure out where you’re going to find species of choice.

● Presented as a line map, point map, contour map & probability map.

● Type of distribution map to use depends on research question.

● Usually no reference to temporal attributes (on any resolution).

● There are exceptions with temporal attributes.

● Involves data content & amount of interpretation.

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55
Q

Types of distribution maps? (4)

A

• Line map.
• Point map.
• Contour map.
• Probability map.

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56
Q

Line distribution map attributes? (2)

A

• Drawn by an expert of where they think species could be.

• Includes expert interpretation.

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57
Q

How do line distribution maps include expert interpretation?

A

By thinking about habitat requirements & what the organism is looking for.

58
Q

What does the type of distribution map you use depend on?

A

Your research question.

59
Q

What is the exception with temporal attributes?

A

Temminck’s courser.

60
Q

What does Temminck’s courser do?

A

Shows the distribution of species in different months of the year.

61
Q

Point distribution map attributes? (2)

A

• Points are QDG.
• Involves absence & presence data.

62
Q

What do the QDG points do?

A

They show that that organism was in that region, that is, the QDG.

63
Q

Absence data attributes? (2)

A

• Hard to collect.
• Real absences.

64
Q

Absence data?

A

= data that shows that the species is absent in a region/grid.

65
Q

Presence data?

A

= data that shows that the species is present in a region/grid.

66
Q

Why is absence data difficult to collect?

A

It’s because of pseudoabsence.

67
Q

Why pseudoabsence?

A

It’s a consequence of sampling/surveying.

68
Q

Real absences?

A

= indicate that sampling was good, and therefore you have no pythons.

69
Q

Absence data vs Presence data?

A

● Absence data
= pseudoabsence & real absences.

● Presence data
= species is there.

70
Q

Sampling for distribution maps attributes? (2)

A

• Expert sampling.
• You can use data software such as GBIF and iNaturalist.

71
Q

Contour distribution map?

A

= distribution map that blends presence data with expert interpretation.

72
Q

Probability distribution map?

A

= distribution map that involves the probability of finding a species in a region.

73
Q

Probability distribution map attributes? (3)

A

• A correlation method.

• Bases presence/absence of a species on habitat or biotic interactions.

• Continuous as you move from “red to green” for example.

74
Q

What does a Probability distribution map do?

A

It uses multiple lines of data [presence data (GPS coordinates) paired with habitat/abiotic (biotic interactions)].

75
Q

Attributes of distribution measurement? (2)

A

• Resolution.
• Scale.

76
Q

Resolution?

A

= the ground size that a pixel represents.

77
Q

Kinds of grid? (2)

A

• Fine grid.
• Coarse grid.

78
Q

Fine grid attributes? (4)

A

• Fine/smooth resolution.
• More detail.
• High resolution.
• Many tiny pixels.

79
Q

Coarse grid attributes? (4)

A

• Coarse resolution.
• Less detail.
• Low resolution.
• Few, large pixels.

80
Q

Scale attributes? (2)

A

• Window that you’re looking through.
• Resolution is within it.

81
Q

Egs of Scale? (2)

A

• Country.
• Region.

82
Q

Resolution & Scale attributes? (2)

A

• When doing this you need to figure out what scale & resolution works for your species.

• Information we get increases as we go from large scale to small scale.

83
Q

Egs of How to figure out what scale and resolution works for your species? (2)

A

• Plants = small scale.
• Animals = large scale.

84
Q

Abundance attributes? (11)

A

● A 3rd dimension.

● Most maps are presented as if abundance is binary (presence/absence or presence only).

● Species are more abundant at some sites than others.

● Is auto-correlated in space.

● Changes with time.

● Species tends to be most abundant where niche parameters are most favourable.

● Varies systematically.

● High near the edge if edge is a coastline, has been affected by human encroachment.

● Often a proxy is used to estimate abundance.

● Pseudoabsence.

● Involves even surveying across geographic space.

85
Q

Result of presenting maps as if abundance is binary?

A

It underestimates the variation in abundance.

86
Q

What do you mean when you say that abundance is auto-correlated in space?

A

We mean that close sites/sites closer to each other tend to have similar abundance.

87
Q

Niche parameters?

A

= what’s more favourable to that species (realized niche).

88
Q

What do you mean when you say that abundance varies systematically?

A

We mean that abundance is most often highest in the centre of the distribution & is zero across the edge.

89
Q

When does abundance become high at the edge? (2)

A

It’s high at the edge only if species:

• is at a coastline.
• has been affected by human encroachment.

90
Q

What do you mean that a proxy is often used to estimate abundance?

A

We mean that we think about observations as a proxy to estimate abundance.

91
Q

Problems of using a proxy to estimate abundance? (2)

A

• May identify the same animal multiple times.

• Observer bias.

92
Q

Pseudoabsence?

A

= occurs when you observe the same thing/species more than once.

93
Q

Even surveying across geographic space?

A

= involves who’s surveying, when they’re surveying & where they’re surveying.

94
Q

Attributes of occurrence? (3)

A

• Abundance.
• Mass effect.
• Metapopulations.

95
Q

Explain Abundance graph? (5)

A

● x-axis = distance.

● y-axis = abundance.

● Flat top of graph.

● Uphill afterward.

● As you move away from the transact abundance decreases, then increases maybe due to high nutrients in soil.

96
Q

Mass effect?

A

= where the range of an organism usually has source and sink areas/populations.

97
Q

Flat top of Abundance graph attributes? (4)

A

Similar species due to:

• climate.
• habitat.
• similar resources.

98
Q

Mass effect attributes? (5)

A

• Source areas have better habitat & organisms reproduce at better rates than replacement rates.

• Populations in sink areas are sustained only by input from source areas.

• Usually, some areas are nearer the centre of the distribution (not always the case).

• If a species undergoes reduction in abundance & range, source areas are likely to be the last strongholds.

• More range movement.

99
Q

Source area?

A

= area that has better habitats & where organisms reproduce at better rates than replacement rates.

100
Q

Source area attributes? (5)

A

• Nearer to the centre of the distribution (not always the case).

• More likely to be the last stronghold.

• Is a constant part of species range.

• Has more individuals that are better at reproducing.

• Individuals move out towards sink populations.

101
Q

Sink area attributes? (2)

A

• Consists of individuals coming from source areas.

• Sustained by input from source populations.

102
Q

Why do organisms move out of source areas? (3)

A

• Limited resources in source areas.
• Pre-saturation (from Ecology).
• Depends on species you’re working with.

103
Q

What happens to sink and source populations when climate changes?

A

Sink populations are the first to be eliminated/to collapse.

104
Q

Why are sink populations the first to collapse when climate changes?

A
105
Q

Metapopulations attributes? (7)

A

• Similar concept, but the sink areas don’t connect.

• Lower rate of individuals moving to sink populations.

• “Source populations” are isolated from each other (no exchange between individuals).

• Nodes are genetically isolated.

• Isolated populations are allopatric or disjunct.

• Selection pressures across species range can change.

• Think about the types of selection acting (disruptive, etc).

106
Q

Why are isolated populations allopatric or disjunct?

A

It’s a consequence of vicariance if the range has reduced & split.

107
Q

Types of species responses to change in climate? (4)

A

● May be completely unaffected by change.

● Adapt to new conditions so that distribution stays the same.

● Species can track climate change.

● Decline towards extinction.

108
Q

May be completely unaffected by change ?

A

= high genetic variation enables species to handle change.

109
Q

Adapt to new conditions attributes? (2)

A

• To ensure that distribution stays the same.
• Responds via its distribution.

110
Q

Why do species track climate change? (2)

A

So that:

• The range moves spatially.

• The species remains in the same climatic envelope.

111
Q

Decline towards extinction?

A

= where sink areas are the first to go.

112
Q

What does response to change depend on? (4)

A

• Amount of genetic cohesion (genetic variation).

• Presence of physical barriers.

• Rate of climate change.

• The species (species generation time, slow generation time, slow response).

113
Q

Modes of spread? (4)

A

• Long jump dispersal (LJD).
• Diffusion.
• Secular migration.
• Negative spread.

114
Q

LJD?

A

= movement of individuals over inhospitable terrain over long distances with eventual establishment of the population at the destination.

115
Q

LJD attributes? (6)

A

• Rapid, far, random dispersal event.

• Common in plants, less common than expected in animals.

• Only explanation for original populations on volcanic islands.

• Consider what the organism needs to move through to do long jump dispersal.

• Ability to jump disperse is predictable to an extent.

• Happens continuously.

116
Q

Why is LJD most common in plants?

A

It’s because most plants are wind-dispersed.

117
Q

Types of islands? (2)

A

• Continental islands.
• Volcanic islands.

118
Q

Continental island?

A

=

119
Q

Volcanic island?

A

=

120
Q

Inhospitable terrain?

A

= bodies of water for birds.

121
Q

Result of LJD?

A

Some taxonomic randomness, although close biota are more likely to jump disperse.

122
Q

Eg of organisms that are bad at LJD?

A

Amphibians.

123
Q

Why are amphibians bad at LJD?

A

It’s because they physiologically can’t adapt to salt water, sand, etc, unless human-assisted.

124
Q

Egs of LJD? (3)

A

• Tropical house gecko.
• Flowerpot snake.
• Distribution of Juncus on southern islands.

125
Q

Explain the Tropical House gecko? (3)

A

● Is an eg of human-assisted long jump dispersal.

● Transported from East Indies to South Africa (and all over the world).

● Good at establishing a population.

126
Q

Explain Flowerpot snake? (3)

A

● From South East Asia to Durban, SA.

● Good at human-assisted long jump dispersal.

● Successful long jump disperser.

127
Q

Why is the Flowerpot snake a successful long jump disperser?

A

It is parthenogenic (females can reproduce & this organism homogenizes overtime).

128
Q

Explain Distribution of Juncus on southern islands? (2)

A

● High winds are key to long jump dispersal (roaring 40s).

● Genetic structure is similar.

129
Q

Why is the genetic structure of Juncus similar?

A

It’s because of repeated movement (gene flow).

130
Q

Diffusion?

A

= gradual expansion of range over hospitable terrain over generations.

131
Q

Diffusion attributes? (2)

A

• Gradual extension.
• Achieved over several generations.

132
Q

LJD vs Diffusion?

A

● LJD
= achieved over one generation.

● Diffusion
= achieved over several generations.

133
Q

Egs of Diffusion? (2)

A

• European starlings.
• Cattle egrets.

134
Q

Explain European starlings? (2)

A

● Started at New York & diffused out.

● Human-assisted.

135
Q

Explain Cattle egrets? (3)

A

● LJD event during the late 1800s, followed by diffusion.

● Got blown over by winds.

● From South America & North America.

136
Q

Secular migration attributes? (5)

A

• Slower than diffusion.

• May include some adaptation in population.

• Adaptation may lead to species diversification over time.

• No clear difference between it & diffusion as it’s on a continuum.

• Take into account fossil evidence (temporal/time component).

137
Q

Eg of Secular migration?

A

Camels, lamas & alpacas.

138
Q

Explain Camels, lamas & alpacas? (3)

A

● Fossil evidence.

● From N. America to Africa & S. America.

● Lineages are diversifying through adaptations as they are dispersing.

139
Q

Negative spread attributes? (3)

A

• Results in isolated populations (vicariance - allopatry).

• Local populations may die out (extirpation).

• Can ultimately lead to extinction.

140
Q

Extirpation vs Extinction?

A

● Extirpation
= loss of local population.

● Extinction
= loss of entire population.

141
Q

Eg of Negative spread?

A

Polar bears.

BIO3A: Processes 2 Patterns (12 decks)

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