S7 Political Philosophy

Question 1

how was Bentham involved in politcal philosophy?

Answer 1

While Jeremy Bentham was not a major figure in classical liberalism or the traditional social contract theory (like Locke or Rousseau), his utilitarian philosophy significantly influenced the development of modern democratic thought.

Bentham argued that political institutions and laws should aim to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number,
–> aligns with the core democratic principle of majority rule and public welfare.

In this way, Bentham’s focus on maximizing collective well-being helped shape the modern political expectation that governments exist to serve the needs and preferences of their citizens

Bentham did not “create” or directly contribute to the contract theory — but rather his ideas parallel and influence modern expectations of democratic governance

Question 2

What is the Right of Revolution?

Answer 2

= the right or duty of a people to “alter or abolish” a government that:
- acts against their common interests or
- threatens the safety of the people without justifiable cause.

Locke: offered the defense that revolution is both justified and permissible when the state breaches its duty to protect the natural rights of persons

Question 3

Thomas Hobbes’ view on:
- human nature,
- life before the state
- the purpose of the government
- the type of government

Answer 3

Hobbes has a pessimistic view on human nature and emphasises the importance of strong governance

human nature:
- humans all have an equality of power = equal ability to kill or conquer one another
–> everyone lives in constant fear
- the state of nature is a state of war
- humans seek to dominate others and demand their respect
- individuals have a “natural right” to do whatever they deem necessary for their self preservation

life before the state:
- “nasty, short and brutish” –> where there was constant chaos and war

Purpose of government:
- to impose law and order to prevent the state of war
- to control & protect people from themselves, not to represent

Type of government:
- a single, absolute ruler

Question 4

What was Thomas Hobbes’ social contract theory

Answer 4

Authoritarian social contract for security

• individuals give up all rights to a sovereign, absolute ruler in exchange for security and order
• the rulers power must be undivided und unchecked to prevent civil war

–> Goal: peace and survival, not freedom or equality

–> EVERYONE must follow this social contract, otherwise a chaotic war and rebellion against the contract will break out and the society will collapse

Question 5

John Locke’s view on:
- human nature,
- life before the state
- the purpose of the government
- the type of government

Answer 5

human nature:
- humans are rational –> can solve disputes through reason
- are guided by the pursuit of self-interest, but are mindful of other’s concerns = EGOTISTICAL INDIVIDUALISM
–> individuals have a moral duty to respect each other’s rights
- men exist in the state of nature with complete freedom –> so the state of nature is chaotic, but not good or bad

life before the state:
- before the state, there were “natural” societies, with “natural laws” and “natural rights”
- not good or bad, but chaotic

the purpose of the government:
- to secure natural rights: man’s property and liberty
- must be representative of the citizens
- The state protects freedom; a stateless life leads to a lack of freedom.
- Famous quote: “Where laws do not exist, man has no freedom.”

The type of government:
- government by consent: it must be based on the consent of those being governd

Question 6

who is a classical/ transitional/ modern liberalist?

Answer 6

classical: John Locke
transitional: J.S. Mill
modern: John Rawls

Question 7

John Locke’s view of the Social Contract Theory

Answer 7

Liberal social contract for maintaining natural rights (life, property, liberty)
- the citizens must give up some of their rights and accept the laws of the government by consent, whose role is to protect the society and preserve man’s natural right of property and liberty

• the state must protect citizens
• government power is limited and split (separation of powers: legislative, judiciary, executive)
• government must be based on consent of the governed
• citizens must accept the laws
• if the state violates the contact, citizens can withdraw their consent and have the right to revolution

he aims to construct a liberal framework centred upon limited government, individual rights, and government by consent

Question 8

John rawls view on:
- human nature,
- the purpose of the government

Answer 8

human nature:
- mankind is selfish but empathetic
- humans value individual liberty, but also value the plight of those around them

purpose of gov./ role of the state:
- the role of the state is to redistribute wealth
- should improve the conditions of the poorest
- should enable less fortunate individuals to advance (via public spending and public services)
- should tone down free-market capitalism to advance and halp its poorest citizens

Question 9

John Rawls’ view on the social contract theory

Answer 9

Theory of Justice as fairness
Rawls uses the social contract theory rather as a thought experiment to derive just and fair political structures.
- people must make (political) decisions behind a veil of ignorance
- individuals must agree on enabling equal basic liberties for all
–> could involve a certain class of society to lose a portion of their freedom while a lower class gains freedom…
- to create a just society, we first need to agree on the principles behind justice

Question 10

John Stuart Mill’s view on:
- human nature,
- the best society
- the purpose of the government
- the type of government

Answer 10

human nature:
- people are fundamentally rational
- human nature is not fixed –> it is ever progressing & improving
- society can pressure conformity (despotism of custom)

the best society:
- one where humans coexist with tolerance & self-improvement

purpose of gov.:
- protect individual liberty, freedom of thought and self development
–> avoid despotism of custom
- if someone is harmed, the state should intervene
–> harm principle
- max. overall happiness and protect personal autonomy

Question 11

equity vs equality

Answer 11

EQUALITY: everyone is given the same resource or opportunities

EQUITY: recognises that each person has different circumstances and allocates the exact resources and opportunities needed to reach and equal outcome

Question 12

Critiques of liberalism

Answer 12

• mary wollstonecraft: men and women are intellectually not very different, and the separate rules for women in 18th century England violated the values of liberalism, stating society treats women as dumber individuals
• marxists: liberal democracies claim to be fair but actually sustain economic systems that benefit the higher class by protecting private property and caitalist interests
  –> Frankfurt School!

Question 13

What are the natural rights according to locke

Answer 13

individuals have the right to life, liberty, and property

Question 14

What is the “Veil of Ignorance”?
example/ analogy?
when is society “fair”?

Answer 14

= a concept that requires us to:
- place ourselves in the position of others.
- consider the danger of being born into poverty.
–> Rawls assumed that people would want a fairer society with adequate housing, safe neighbourhoods, a good education system and an unbiased criminal justice system.

e.g. jurors, who are prevented from accessing outside information and therefore cannot form biased opinions that could influence decisions

when is society fair?
- when we can state that no-one would care what circumstances we would be born into.

Question 15

What is J.S. Mill’s negative freedom?

Answer 15

• argues that freedom mainly involves an absence of restraint
  –> connected to his harm principle

Question 16

What did Mill fear about the democratic state?

Answer 16

that it had potential to create a tyranny of the majority, where the wishes of some individuals are overwhelmed by the wishes of most individual citizens

Question 17

What is individualism

Answer 17

= the core liberal principle
It’s a philosophical and social concept that emphasizes the importance of the individual over the collective group or state, and it places the individual in the centre of political and moral discussions (…utiliatrian ideas, sacrificing one individual for the benefit of multiple, wouldn’t be accepted)

It advocates for personal autonomy, self reliance, and individual freedom, and this promotes the pursuit of personal goals, desires and self-fulfillment, which are at the centre of Liberalism
–> greatly promoted by John Stuart Mill

Question 18

famous quote by john locke (on freedom)

Answer 18

“Where there is no law, there is no freedom”

Question 19

what are the 5 core ideas of liberalism? (summarised)

Answer 19

1. a positive view of human nature
2. a view of a rational society where individualism (& the right to property) is at the heart
   –> where people have similar interests (e.g. freedom and self-preservation) they’ll act rationally
3. a free-market economy
4. government by consent
5. the promotion of:
   - individualism & individual rights
   - tolerance (e.g. religious) & being open minded and accepting
   - meritocracy (reward because of what they achieve rather than their social status)
   - equality of opportunity
   - justice

Question 20

What view does liberalism have on human nature? (4 points)

Answer 20

• positive view
• human nature has a huge capacity to bring about progress
• individuals are guided by reason, though are naturally more selfish (egotistical individualism)
• humans are capable of controlling their own future, rather than simply following fate or “the will of God”
  –> existentialism…

Question 21

what is the liberalist view on society?
hobbes
locke
mill

Answer 21

Liberalism has an optimistic view on human nature and believes a rational society can exist

Hobbes: human nature is brutall selfsih and so no society could possibly survive without a state (“nasty, short and brutish”)

Locke: believes people are guided by reason and therefore a society has always existed with natural laws and natural rights, and the state secures these natural laws and rights

Mill: the main purpose of an civilised society is to promote individualism because each individual has a unique personality and traits which will help bring about new ideas for society to improve and progress

Question 22

what is economic liberalism?

Answer 22

= aka capitalism
- an economic system that emerged in the late 17th century (during the enlightenment, which is also when humanistic ideas resurfaced)
- works on a laissez-faire basis (gov. doesnt interefere with the workings of the free market), promoted in Adam Smith’s “The Wealth Of Nations”

Question 23

what are the liberal elements of capitalism?

Answer 23

1. invloves private property, which was considered a natural right, especially by classical liberals like locke
2. it is individualistic –> individual traders, etc.
3. it is thought to be of benefit to all, and to bring progress
   –> criticism: it is definitely not of benefit to all!

Question 24

difference between socialism and liberalism?

Answer 24

Both have an optimistic view of human nature.

BUT: Liberals will ultimately defend a market-based economy & will never agree to the anti-capitalist message of socialism

Question 25

Why does liberalism have such an optimitsic view of human nature?

Answer 25

- it goes off the premise that humans are rational thinkers who can make sensible choices - it says human nature has a huge capacity to bring about progress and to control one's own future, rather than simply following "fate" or "the will of God" - rejects the (at the time) traditional view that humans are flawed and need saving --> INFLUENCED BY HUMANISM & ITS VALUES/ IDEAS

Question 26

What are the origins of Liberalism?

Answer 26

**Reformation: showed that individualism and independence is possible and achievable** - Luther's argument that Christianity could become more independent --> Christianity could also be practiced individually rather than always dependent on the Church - emergence of the printing press --> more people owned the Bible and could pray alone --> enabled wider access to literature and education **Enlightenment: the independent ideas of religion were now applied to politics, the state, and the economy** = intellectual movement (during mid 17th century) that promoted rational thinking, which led people to question the absolute divinity of the current absolute rulers --> initiated the foundtions of democracy and the splitting of power in the state --> reduced the power of the ruler and promoted representation of the individual --> influenced the creation of an independent American Republic and the French Revolution

Question 27

classical vs modern liberalism similarities

Answer 27

similarities: - optimistic view of human nature - humans are capable of rational thought - tolerance of minorities - importance and emphasis on individualism (but achieved differently) - capitalism & laissez-faire economy - government by consent & limited state

Question 28

positive vs negative liberty

Answer 28

**negative:** a notion of freedom that invloves individuals being left alone to pursue their destiny & any attempt to interfere could be judged as an infringement of liberty --> the belief of individuals being highly slef-reliant and autonomous, who take control of their own future =CLASSICAL **Positive:** - suggests that when left alone, individuals are inhibited rather than free - we should help people to achieve greater freedom --> equity & equality Isaiah Berlin: - +ve = "freedom to" - -ve = "freedom from"

Question 29

democracy

Question 30

what was the intention behind the fragmentation of power?

Answer 30

- legislative - judiciary - executive Goal: to avoid concentration of powrr and corruption

Question 31

classical vs modern liberalism differences

Answer 31

**classical:** - late 17th + 18th century - minimal state with little influence --> infrequent taxing --> emphasis on private property... - laissez-faire capitalism - negative liberty - key people: locke, adam smith **modern:** - late 19th, early 20th century - larger state --> taxing as a key to +ve freedom - positive liberty - keynesian capitalism (state manages market force) - representative democracy - key people: john rawls, isaiah berlin (+ve & -ve liberty)

Question 32

why do modern liberals believe a larger state is important?

Answer 32

People are born into sectors they can't change, so external influence by the state would help provide the disadvantaged with more freedom. It is not true that humans are entirely autonomous, since modern society heavily influences people through things beyond their control. --> therefore, in order to be free, people must be free from socio-economic problems (e.g. bad healthcare, education...) --> reflects positive liberty

Question 33

what is the importance of a liberal contitution within the government?

Answer 33

a liberal contitution is designed to prevent governments from eroding the natural rights of their citizens

Question 34

what is democracy

Answer 34

Abraham Lincoln: democracy is "government by the people", "of the people" and "for the people" An indivdual has to follow a certain set of rules, however these rules only slightly infringe upon one's freedom so that they don't infringe upon another person's freedom, and ultimaltely, they enable the individual greater freedom at a constant level --> doesnt fluctuate much It is expected that most of the citizens take part in political activity and votes = participatory democracy

Question 35

what rights does an eu citizen have

Answer 35

- the right to vote - the right to form a political party - the right to associate (e.g. in a trade union, church...) - the right to express yourself (within the law) - the right not to be imprisoned without trial - the right to a fair trial - the right to privacy from intrusion by the state

Question 36

direct democracy referendum representative democracy

Answer 36

**direct democracy** = a political system where the people themsleves make key political decisions **referendum** = a vote where the public is asked to vote directly to determine an important political or contitutional issue **representative democracy** = political system where most decisons are made by elected representatives who represent the people and communicate their interests and demands to desicion makers

Question 37

what are key features of direct democracy

Answer 37

- free people from constantly making decisions - not as feasible in modern society with a large population and increasingly interconnectedness of the world --> lots of decisons needing to be made, many of which are complex --> direct democratic decisions would be too complicated, messy and time-consuming - still used in some small parishes in rural areas to decide upon local issues

Question 38

what are key features of representative democracy?

Answer 38

- citizens elect their representatives - all citizens are then represented by members of the parlament --> also minority groups --> BUT out of wish to secure votes, minority opinion is often still not represented enough - the Parlament in expected to represent the national interest - the government must submit all proposals to the parlament for its approval - enables faster decision-making on certain urgent issues - politicians are often better aware of the problems and will reach better suited decisions than the public