Science 10-1 AP Final Flashcards
(274 cards)
1
Q
Motion
A
Motion is when an object changes its position relative to a reference point in a given time
Motion can be described in terms of:
Distance, Displacement, Speed
2
Q
Scalar Quantity
A
Scalar quantities are described by their magnitude alone
Ex. Temperature, Length, Speed, Distance
3
Q
Vector Quantity
A
Vector quantities are described by both magnitude & direction
Ex. Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration
4
Q
Distance
A
Distance is a scalar quantity describing the length between two points
Total distance travelled
5
Q
Displacement
A
Displacement is a vector quantity because it is described by both a magnitude & a direction
Distance from the point of origin
We give positive or negative values in different directions
Positive: North (UP), East (RIGHT)
Negative: South (DOWN), West (LEFT)
6
Q
Uniform Motion
A
Refers to when an object is moving in a straight path at a constant speed
Rarely achieved in the real world
7
Q
Average Speed
A
Refers to the distance an object travels in a given amount of time (Typically in
m/s)
FORMULA: Average Speed = Distance Travelled (Meter) / Time Elapsed
(Seconds)
𝒗 = Δd / Δt
8
Q
Speed
A
Speed is how fast something goes
Scalar quantity
Related to distance
Units: m/s, Km/ hr
Symbol = v
9
Q
Velocity
A
Velocity is the speed & direction of an object
Vector quantity
Related to displacement
Units: m/s, km/hr
Symbol = v with an arrow at the top
If it goes UP or RIGHT it is POSITIVE
If it goes DOWN or LEFT it is NEGATIVE
10
Q
Time
A
s a point in time as it is related to your reference or zero time (Starting
from zero)
Symbol = t
10
Q
Time Interval
A
A time interval is the difference between two times
Symbol = Delta t
Formula: t = t (final time) - t (Initial time)
11
Q
Acceleration
A
Any change of velocity (Speed) of an object during a time interval
Since velocity involves displacement, acceleration can be a change of
magnitude (Velocity Number) or direction
Acceleration is a vector quantity measurement in m/s^2
When an object is speeding up, the magnitude & velocity are increasing
When an object is slowing down the magnitude & velocity are decreasing
12
Q
Negative Acceleration
A
When the change in the magnitude of the velocity is negative & the change in the direction is positive
When the change in the magnitude of the velocity is positive & the change in the direction are negative.
The product or quotient of two integers with different signs (A negative & a positive, gives you a negative)
Instance 1:
Change in magnitude (+)
Direction (-)
Instance 2:
Change in magnitude (-)
DIrection (+)
The direction of acceleration & initial velocity are opposite, the object is
slowing down
13
Q
Positive Acceleration
A
Occurs when the change in BOTH the magnitude of velocity & the change in the direction are positive
When the change in BOTH the magnitude of the velocity & the change in the direction are negative
This second scenario is like multiplying/dividing integers in math- a negative & a negative will produce a positive
Instance 1:
Change in magnitude (+)
Direction (+)
Instance 2:
Change in magnitude (-)
Direction (-)
The direction of acceleration and initial velocity are the same, the object is
speeding up
14
Q
Potential Energy
A
Energy that is stored or held in readiness
It is referred to as potential energy because it has the potential to do work
Forms include:
Gravitational Potential Energy
Chemical Potential Energy
Elastic Potential Energy
15
Q
Mass
A
Mass (m) is a scalar quantity and is measured in (kg)
The amount of matter an object possesses
15
Q
Weight
A
Weight (w) is a vector quantity
It is a measure of the force of gravitational attraction on an object in Newton (N)
The formula for Weight:
W = weight in N
m = mass in kilograms
g = acceleration due to gravity
W = mg
16
Q
Acceleration due to Gravity
A
Objects near the Earth’s surface fall with the same acceleration
Acceleration due to gravity on Earth is constant
g = 9.81m/s^2
17
Q
Gravitational Potential Energy
A
The energy stored in an object at any position above the Earth
Gravitational Potential Energy = (Mass of an object) x (acceleration due to gravity)
x (height above the ground)
An object raised above the Earth’s surface has the potential to do work
because of its position and thus has Gravitational Potential Energy
18
Q
Potential Energy
A
FORMULA: PE = mgh
PE = Potential energy in J
m = mass in kg
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s^2
h = height measured in m
19
Q
Elastic Potential Energy
A
Energy stored when the object tends to return to its original shape when released
Ex. Energy stored in compressed or stretched springs, stretched elastic bands, bent diving boards, etc.
20
Q
Chemical Potential Energy
A
Chemical Potential Energy:
Energy stored in chemical
Stored in the bonds of chemical compounds
Ex. The potential energy of the fossil fuels is only released when
combustion occurs.
21
Q
Other Forms of Potential Energy
A
The other types of potential energy do not require a special formula
Whenever work is done on an object to give it potential energy, it ENERGY
POTENTIAL can be calculated using a formula we’ve already seen:
W = Fd (Work = change in energy)
W = the work done on the object (Potential E)
F = The force applied to the object (in N)
d = The distance over which the force was applied in (m)
22
Q
Newton’s First Law
A
“An object at rest stays the same and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.”
This is also called the law of Inertia
Inertia is the tendency of an object to do nothing or remain unchanged
KEY IDEA = FORCE
23
Object At Rest
Do not move since all forces acting on it are balanced
Forces are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction
24
Objects in Motion
Objects move when a force moving in one direction is greater than a force moving in an opposite direction
Objects move in the direction of the unbalanced force.
25
Force
A push or pull on an object
It is measured in Newton
How do we calculate force?
FORMULA: F = ma
F = Force in Newtons (N)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s^2)
26
Work
The scientific definition of work is the energy transferred to an object when a force is applied that causes the object to move.
3 Conditions Must Be Met For Work To Happen:
1. There must be a force (F)
Ex. There is no work done when sitting on a bike
2. The object must move positions (d)
3. The object must move in the same direction as the force applied.
27
Work is a Scalar Value
Work is a Scalar quantity
There is no direction in work, but only the magnitude
You would never say that you are doing 10J of work [UP]
FORMULA: Work = Force x Distance or W = F x d
F = Force measured in Newtons (N)
d = Distance is measured in meters (m)
w = Work is measured in Joules (J)
28
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work
Measure in Joules (J)
If we assume there is NO loss of energy during a transfer then…
Both work and energy are SCALAR
29
Chemical Energy
The potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of compounds
Ex. When wood burns, the energy in the cellulose molecule is released,
turning to heat.
The food you eat contains chemical energy that the body uses to do work in the cells
30
Electrical Energy & Magnetism
The work done by moving charges (e-) linked to magnetism
Electricity can produce magnetic fields (electromagnets)
Batteries show a relationship between electric & chemical energy
31
Nuclear Fission
Refers to a single nucleus being split into two smaller nuclei - this is the type of nuclear reaction that occurs in nuclear power plants
31
Nuclear Energy
The potential energy stored in the nucleus of an atom
32
Nuclear Fusion
Refers to two small nuclei combining to form a larger nucleus
This is the type of nuclear reaction that occurs in the sun
33
Solar Energy
Released nuclear energy from H-H fusion in the sun
34
Kinetic Energy
Energy from Motion
Flowing water
Any object in motion can do work
Energy involving movement is called kinetic energy
Energy of motion
The faster the object moves, the more kinetic energy it has
Dependent on the object’s mass
34
Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energy
It is a constant throughout an energy transfer (ignoring friction & air resistance)
Mechanical Energy is due to the motion and position of an object
Mechanical Energy is energy that is associated with the motion and position of an object
FORMULA: ME = KE + GE
(Mechanical Energy = Kinetic Energy + Gravitational Energy)
35
Thermal Energy
Heat (Thermal Energy) flows from hot to cold
Heat & mechanical energy are different types of energy that can be converted from one to the other.
Therefore, energy is the ability to do work
36
Calculating Kinetic Energy
Anytime an object is in motion, it has kinetic energy
Heat is also a form of kinetic energy since the particles of a warmer substance move faster than those of a cooler substance
37
Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be destroyed or created
The law of conservation of energy states that the amount of energy in a given situation remains constant
Thus, we can convert energy from one form to another, but the total amount must remain constant
In other words, in an ideal situation, MAXIMUM potential energy is equal to MAXIMUM kinetic energy
So, the equation used to calculate the Law of Conservation of Energy is…
MAX PE = MAX KE
38
Systems
The particular item of study
39
Surroundings
Everything else except for the particular item of study
40
Universe
The particular item of study and everything else
41
Open Systems
Matter & energy can be exchanged
Ex. Earth, cells, an open container
41
Closed Systems:
Only energy can be exchanged
Ex. Closed container
42
Isolated Systems:
Neither matter nor energy can be exchanged
Ex. Thermos
43
The First Law of Thermodynamics (The Law of Conservation of Energy)
Energy CANNOT be created or destroyed just transformed
43
Efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how much input energy is transformed into useful output energy
No energy conversion is 100% efficient
Usually potential energy is the input energy
FORMULA: (Energy Output/ Energy Input) x100 = % Efficiency
44
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Heat always flows from a hot object to a cold object
Heat engine:
Uses this law to convert heat flow into mechanical energy
Ex. Combustion energy
45
Matter
Everything that has mass & occupies space
46
Chemical Properties
Describe how one substance reacts with one another
Ex. Flammability, reacts with a base to form water, combustible, reacts
with water to form gas
46
Physical Properties
Visible features of matter
Ex. Colour, density, smell, taste, boiling & melting points, texture,
conduct electricity
47
Pure Substances
Consists of a single kind of matter
Always has the same composition and properties
Ex. Water, salt, baking soda, hydrogen
2 Types: Elements & Compounds
47
Physical Change
A change alters the APPEARANCE of material but does not
make the material into another substance
The original substance still exists
Physical Changes are REVERSIBLE!!
Evidence: state change, dissolving
Ex. Tearing paper, molding clay, melting ice
48
Chemical Change
A change in matter that produces a new substance
Some signs that a chemical change has taken place:
Bubbles, Colour changes, odour
is formed, Precipitate forms,
Heat and/or light is emitted
Reactions are not easily reversed
Energy is ALWAYS involved during both physical & chemical changes
49
Elements
Consists of one type of atom
It cannot be broken down any further
A pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means
Ex. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen
49
Mixtures
Consists of two or more pure substance
Ex. Salt water, juice, steel
2 Types: Homogeneous & Heterogeneous
50
Compounds
Contains two or more different types of atoms
It can be broken down by chemical means
Ex. Water, Carbon dioxide
51
Homogenous (Solutions) Mixtures
Homo = Same Genos = kind
Consists of solvent (what is doing the dissolving) and the solute (What is being dissolved)
The solute & solvent appear to be one
Ex. Salt water, metal alloy (Steel) & Juice
51
Solutions
A solution is a homogenous mixture
It is a mixture in which separate components are not visible
E. Soft drink, Perfume
52
Heterogeneous
Hetero = Other Genos = Kind
The individual parts of the mixture remain intact & visible
The mixture does not appear to be the only thing
Ex. Cookie dough, cement, salad, bag of candy
53
Mechanical Mixtures
It is a type of heterogenous mixture
A mechanical mixture is a mixture in which different substances are visible
Ex. A bowl of candy or salad
53
Colloid
Colloid is a mechanical mixture in which the suspended substance cannot be easily separated from the other substances in the mixture
Ex. MIlk or whipped cream
54
Suspension
A suspension is a mechanical mixture (or heterogenous mixture) in which the components are in different states
Ex. Orange juice with pulp, mud, sand storm
55
The Atom
The smallest part of an element that has all the properties of that element
Atoms form the building blocks of all matter
55
1808 John Dalton
Believed atoms were small solid spheres like,” Billiard balls”, but they could have different properties
Varied in size, mass and colour
56
1897 J.J Thomson
Created the “Plum Pudding Model”
Most of the atom consists of a positive charge (the pudding) with negative charges embedded in it (the plums)
57
1911 Ernest Rutherford
An atom contains a positively charged core (nucleus) named the proton
Negative charges surround the nucleus
Gold foil experiment- atom is mostly empty space with a tiny positive core
57
1914 Niels Bohr
The proton are all in the nucleus
The electrons are in definite energy levels (orbits)
The electrons move around the nucleus in definite orbits (similar to planets
orbiting around the sun)
“Solar System Model”
58
1930 de Broglie & Schrodinger
Believe that the electrons form a cloud around the nucleus
The exact locations of the electrons are not defined
59
Metals
Most of all the elements
Silvery or grey in colour and shiny
Good conductors of electricity & heat
Malleable & Ductile
Solid at room temperature- except Mercury
Difference in how reactive they are
60
Metalloid
Properties are intermediate between metals & non-metals
Some conduct electricity but not well
Some of them are semiconductors which means they carry electrical
charge under special conditions.
60
Non-metals
Only 17 elements
Variation in colour, state at room temperature and reactivity
[On the Periodic Table]: It is to the LEFT of the staircase
61
Periods
The horizontal lines or rows that is numbered by the atomic number are called a period
HINT: Periods go at the end of a sentence, and sentences go horizontal
The most reactive metals start on the left
As you move right the metals become less reactive
Period #: Indicates the amount of energy levels the atom has
61
The Periodic Table:
Organizes all the elements according to their chemical properties
Metals are on the left side and center of the periodic table and the non-metals are on the right.
In between are the metalloids
62
Families
Each vertical column forms a group or family
Chemical families are groups of elements that have similar chemical & physical properties
Group #: Indicates the number of electrons on the outer level (valence electrons)
62
Alkali Metals
Group 1- 1st column on the periodic table not including hydrogen
Lithium, sodium, potassium,
rubidium, cesium, francium
Soft, shiny, silver and very reactive with water
They don’t freely occur in nature & are softer than most metals
They are great conductors
Most reactive of the metals
63
Alkaline-Earth Metals
Group 2 - Reactive metals that are always combined with nonmetals in nature
Several of these elements are important minerals nutrients (such as Mg and Ca)
They’re extremely reactive so they are not found freely in nature
Though their reactivity is not as strong as that of the Alkali metals
Ex. Radium
64
Transition Metals
Group 3-12: Less reactive, harder metals
Includes metals used in jewelry and construction.
Metals used as “metal”
65
Halogens
Group 17 - fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine.
Very reactive, volatile, diatomic, nonmetals Non-Metals
Poisonous and reacts readily with alkali metals to form salt.
Ex: sodium chloride (table salt).
66
Noble Gases
Group 18 - helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon.
Very unreactive (Most stable & unreactive elements)
Used in light “neon” signs
Have a full valence shell
67
Atom
They are made mostly of space
Most of the mass is in the nucleus (neutrons & protons)
Have a positively charged nucleus (+)
Smallest part of an element that has all the properties of that element
Made up of 3 major particles:
1. Protons 2. Neutrons 3. Electrons
The basic building block of matter is made up of a nucleus (centre) containing protons and neutrons, with electrons orbiting around it.
A neutral particle is made up of a nucleus containing protons & newtons, and in which the number of electrons equals the number of protons
68
Protons
Positively charged particles in the nucleus of an atom, located in the
nucleus (1+)
Top left of the square on the periodic table
Same thing as the Atomic Number
69
Neutrons
Neutral particles, located in the neutron (0)
Protons & neutrons compromise 99% of an atom's total
Atomic Mass - Atomic Number [On the Periodic Table]
70
Electrons
Negatively charged particles, located in the region surrounding the nucleus (1-)
[On the Periodic Table]: It is the Atomic Number
Occupy specific energy levels (an energy level is a region of space where an electron may be found)
A region of space where an electron may be found.
They have less energy in levels closest to the nucleus due to strong attraction to the positive nucleus, and more energy farther away.
70
The Atomic Number
The number of protons in an atom of an element
Used to specify the element
Elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number
Ex. Lithium (Li) has 3 protons
Atoms are generally neutral
So the number of protons = number of electrons
71
The Atomic Molar Mass Number
Related to the mass number
The number of protons & neutrons in an atom
Ex. Lithium (Li) mass number = 6.94 (rounded to 7)
72
Bohr Diagrams:
Niels Bohr developed the theory of energy levels.
A certain number of electrons are able to occupy a specific energy level
First energy level = 2 electrons
Second energy level = 8 electrons
Third Energy Level = 8 electrons
73
Isotopes
An atom’s molar mass is the average mass of the element’s isotopes
Isotopes of an element do not have exactly the same mass: some have slightly greater masses than others.
Atoms of the same element contain different numbers of neutrons, even
though they have the same number of protons.
Example:
Hydrogen -1 (normal) : 1p 0n
Hydrogen - 2 (deuterium) : 1p 1n
Hydrogen - 3 (tritium): 1p 2n
74
Valence Electrons:
Elements in the same family have the same reactivity.
This is related to the number of electrons in the outer shell called valence.
They are the electrons in the outer shell
75
The Octet Rule
States that atoms bond in such a way as to have 8 electrons in their outer shell, full like a noble gas!
Exceptions:
Hydrogen, Lithium, and Beryllium only need two like Helium.
76
Groups & The Periodic Table with their Valences
Alkali metals (group 1) all have one valence electron.
Alkaline Earth Metals (group 2) all have two valence electrons
Halogens (group 7) all have 7 valence electrons.
Noble gases (group 8) all have 8 valence electrons.
Complete outer shells.
These valence electrons indicate the bonding properties of those elements
77
Lewis Dot Diagram:
Representation of an atom that shows only the valence electrons.
Valence electrons: electrons in the outermost energy level.
Lewis Dot Diagrams are also known as electron dot diagrams.
78
Valence Electrons
The Electrons in the outer energy level
79
Valence
The tendency to gain or lose electrons
80
Ionization
The process of losing or gaining electrons results in the formation of an ion ( a charged particle)
Atoms gain or lose electrons so that they have the same number of electrons as the nearest noble gas to become more stable (less reactive).
Elements are more stable when they have filled outer energy levels.
Even though ions are electrically imbalanced, they are more stable.
Atoms with fewer electrons to move are more reactive, like alkali metals and halogens.
All atoms want to have a stable (full) outer ring.
They want to be more like noble gases.
To become stable the atoms will gain or lose electrons (whichever is easiest) to fill the outer energy level
When they lose electrons, they become positively charged.
When they gain electrons, they become negatively charged.
81
Ion:
An atom or group of atoms which has either lost one or more electrons (has a positive charge) or gained one or more electrons (has a negative charge)
82
Cation
An ion with a positive charge
It has lost one or more electrons
Most cations form when metal atoms lose electrons.
Lost an electron.
Metals form cations.
Ex. Mg2+, Ag+, K+, Al3+
82
Anions
An ion with a negative charge
It has gained one or more electrons.
Most anions form when non-metal atoms gain electrons.
Gained an electron.
Non-metals form anions.
Ex. Cl-, O2-, N3-, I
83
WHMIS
Workplace
Hazardous
Materials
Information
Systems
84
SDS- Safety Data Sheet
Physical data
Such as boiling point, melting point
Toxicity, Health Effects, First Aid
Spill and leak clean-up procedures
85
Ionic Compounds
Consists of metals and non-metals
Atoms want to have full outer energy levels, a valence of 8 electrons like a noble gas
In order to do this atoms must lose or take electrons
Forms an ionic bond
86
Metals & Non-Metals Electrons Rule
Metals: Want to lose electrons to become positive
Non-metals: Want to gain electrons to become negative
86
Multivalent Elements
Some metals (transition metals) can form more than one ion.
They are said to be multi-valent.
These elements have more than one charge listed on the periodic table.
The most commonly used ion is the first ion (top ion) found on the periodic table for each multivalent element.
87
Molecular Compounds
Consists of two non-metals.
Formed by a covalent bond
The mutual sharing of one or more electrons between the atoms involved in the compound
Atoms want to have a full outer energy level, a valence of 8 like a noble gas.
These compounds share electrons to become like noble gases.
88
Special Properties of Water
Water is polar
Water molecules attract each other because of the negative and positive ends.
If water was not polar, all the oceans would boil away even during the coldest winter.
89
Formation of Ice
As liquid water turns to ice, the molecules spread out
The ordering of water molecules in ice means that there are fewer molecules in a litre of ice than in a litre of water
This is why ice floats
90
Properties of Ionic Compounds
Brittle - easily breaks into pieces.
As a solid, they do not conduct electricity - a good insulator as a solid.
As a liquid or in solution they do conduct electricity - good conductor in liquid.
High melting and boiling points compared to molecular compounds.
Rarely have odour.
91
Solubility:
The solubility chart for ionic compounds is in the data booklet.
Use to determine if a compound will dissolve or not.
If it does dissolve, it is aqueous (aq) and considered very soluble.
If it does not dissolve, it is solid (s) and is considered slightly soluble.
After a reaction, if a product doesn’t dissolve, it’s called a “precipitate”.
This is only for ionic compounds.
Be aware of divalent (meaning more than one charge; multivalent)
One charge may produce an (aq) compound while the other produces a (s) compound.
92
Properties of Molecular Compounds
Generally liquids or gas at room temperature.
I.e. water, helium gas, sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Those that are solids have a low melting point.
I.e. glucose (sugar) is a solid at room temperature but melts at only 146°C.
Some have odours.
93
Polyatomic Ions
Are made up of several non-metallic atoms joined together & behaves like a single unit
They already have their own charge.
It participates in chemical reactions without breaking apart.
Many polyatomic ions end in “-ate”, “-ite”, “-ide” and “-oate”.
Ex. Sulfate ion = SO42- Hydroxide ion = OHBrackets need to be used around polyatomic ions when multiplied.
Ex. Ca2+ and NO3- = Ca(NO3)2
94
Acids
Tastes sour
Dangers: Usually corrosive
Conducts electricity (contains ions)
Forms H+ ions in water.
Example: HCl → H+ + ClpH: less than 7 (1 - 6.9)
The indicator (litmus paper) turns red
Chemical properties: Corrode metals, lose acidic properties when mixed with a base (neutralizes)
Real-life uses: Car batteries, lemon acid, vinegar, carbonated drinks
95
Bases
Tastes bitter
Usually corrosive
Conduct electricity
(OH)- ions in water.
Example: NaOH → Na+ + OHpH greater than 7 (7.1 - 14)
The indicator (litmus paper) turns blue
Chemical Properties: loses basic properties when mixed with an acid
(neutralizes)
Real-life Uses: Drain cleaner, bleach, liquid soap antacid tablet
96
pH Scale:
Acids & bases look just like water
The pH scale measures the amount of hydrogen (H+) in one litre of water
If pH is 7 then it’s called neutral (Ex. pure water)
If pH < 7 then it’s acid (Ex. Vinegar, lemon juice)
If pH is > 7 then it’s basic (Ex. Bleach, hand soap)
On the pH scale each increment is 10x greater
97
Buffer:
A substance that can keep the pH of a solution nearly constant despite the addition of an acid or base
98
Universal Indicator
A mixture of several indicators that change the colour as the acidity changes
99
Stomach
hydrochloric acid = some dissolves food & some stimulate pepsin which speeds up digestion
99
Acid & Base Neutralization:
When acids and bases react with one another they neutralize - they lose their acidic and basic properties.
The general equation of acid-base neutralization is…
Acid + Base = Salt + Water
99
Pancreas
sodium hydrogen carbonate that neutralizes stomach acid
100
Mouth
Saliva is slightly basic so teeth won’t dissolve in acid
101
Physical Reactions
A physical reaction is a change of state of the same substance
Ex. Ice to liquid water
102
Chemical Reactions
Occur when a new compound or elements are found
103
Signs of Chemical Reactions
Energy exchange (Temp change)
Odor, Gas, Colour change
Formation of a Solid (Precipitate)
104
The Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy is not created or destroyed
It can only change forms
105
Endothermic
Reactions that absorb energy
Reactants + Energy = Products
Breaking bonds in compounds is endothermic
105
Exothermic
Reactions that release energy
Reactants = Product + Energy
Elements forming compounds and building bonds is exothermic
106
The Conservation of Mass
The total mass of the “reaction system” never changes
Total mass of the reactant = total mass of the products
107
Formation/ Synthesis/ Composition
A type of reaction
Two elements combine to form a compound
Element + Element = Compound
A + B = AB
The reaction is balanced to follow the law of conservation of mass
108
Single Replacement
A type of reaction
A reactive element reads with an ionic compound.
After the reactions, the elements end up in a compound, and one of the elements in the reactant compound ends up as an element
Element + Compound = New Element + New Compound
A + BC = B + AC
Reaction is balanced
Must “swap” ions of the same charge
108
Decomposition
A type of reaction
Products are broken down to get the reactants again
Compound = Element + Element
AB = A + B
The reactions must be BALANCED
109
Double Replacement
Commonly occurs between two ionic compounds
Ionic compounds are always solids at room temperature, so these reactions happen in solutions (that is, dissolved in liquid), where the ions have the opportunity to mix
Often results in the formation of at least one precipitate
Compound + Compound = New Compound + New Compound
AB + CD = AD + CB
Two compounds switch their partners
THINGS TO REMEMBER:
A & C are both positive ions- they will never pair
A & C will always appear first in the formula because positive ions are
ALWAYS written first
B & D are negative ions, so they will combine with positive ions & will
be written second
110
Combustion
Hydrocarbons are substances that contain hydrogen and carbon
Ex. Gasoline, candle wax, many plastics, methane
Any reaction with oxygen that is fast and exothermic is a combustion reaction
If plenty of oxygen is available to react in hydrocarbon combustion, there will always be only two products: Carbon dioxide & water vapour
There are 2 types: Complete Combustion & Incomplete Combustion
111
Complete Combustion:
Produces carbon dioxide and water
112
Incomplete Combustion
Produces carbon monoxide and water
113
Atomic Molar Mass
Molar mass (or atomic molar mass) can be found on the periodic table
Unit: g/mol
Ex. H = 1.01 g/mol, C = 12.01 g/mol, Pb = 207.21 g/mol
This means if you have 6.02 X 10^23 atoms of hydrogen it would weigh 1.01 g
113
Mole
A quantity chemists use to measure elements & compounds
(Symbol = mol)
There are 6.02 X 10^23 atoms in 12g of Carbon
This number is also called Avogadro’s Number
114
Hans & Zacharias Janssen
Two lens system
Eyepiece (Ocular lens)
Objective Lens
Created the first compound microscope
115
Robert Hooke
Three lens system
Examined the cork and saw many empty chambers which he called cells
These tiny chambers were the remnants of living cells, the simplest
functional units of life
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Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek
Put magnifying glasses together to produce a single-lens microscope
Produce higher magnification of up to about 270x
The first to see the movement of singular cellular organisms
He named these “animalcules”
Light microscopes continue to be important to cellular biologists because they allow them to see the movement of living cells
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Compound Light Microscope:
Has 2 or more lenses.
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Eyepiece or ocular lens
The lens at the top that you look through. Usually 10x or 15x power
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Coarse Adjustment knob
Moves the stage up and down to bring the specimen in focus
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Fine adjustment knob
Used to bring the specimen into sharp focus
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Revolving nosepiece
Used to rotate which objective lens is being used, common objective lenses are 4X, 10X, 40X, 100X
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Objective lens
Gathers light from the specimen, magnifies the image of the specimen and projects the magnified image into the body tube –common lenses are 4x, 10x,40x, 100x
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Stage
The surface where you put your slide
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Stage clips
Hold the slide in place
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Diaphragm
Used to change the amount of light coming in
123
Lamp or Mirror
Light source
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Base
Bottom of the microscope, used for support
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Arm
Supports the tube and connect it to the base
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Magnification
Each lens that you look through magnifies the image by a different degree
Total magnification is the product of the magnification of the ocular lens and objective lens
FORMULA:
Magnification = (Ocular lens/eyepiece) X (Objective Lens)
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Field of View
The field of view is the entire area that you see when you look through the microscope
The diameter of the field of view varies with the objective lenses
You CAN NOT measure the diameter of the field of view of the high-power
objective lens using this method
The magnification is so high, that the field of view is less than 1mm, so you must convert millimetres into micrometres (1mm = 100𝞵m)
You have to measure the field of view at a lower magnification, then calculate what it will be at the higher magnification
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Scale
Diagrams may be drawn larger, smaller, or the same size as the actual object
The scale of a diagram is the difference between the size of the diagram and the size of the actual object
Scale is often expressed as ratios
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Spontaneous Generation
"Life could arise from non-living matter”
Widely accepted from the time of the Roman Empire through to the 19th century
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Francesco Redi
(1668): Questioned the belief that maggots appeared spontaneously from raw meat
Set out flasks containing raw meat…
(1668): Questioned the belief that maggots appeared spontaneously from raw meat
Set out flasks containing raw meat…
Despite this evidence, belief in spontaneous generation continued to persists
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John Needham
Boiled chicken broth, put in in a flask and sealed it
Microorganisms still grew in the broth
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Louis Pasteur
French chemists who used the work of Needham & Spallanzani with one
important change
Heated the neck of the flask into an “S” shape
Air could enter, but dust and microorganisms would get caught in the neck
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Lazzaro Spallanzani
Repeated Needham’s experiment, but drew air out of the flask- nothing
grew
Critics suggested that this demonstrated air was required for spontaneous generation
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Variables of Pasteur's Experiment
Manipulated Variable:
Access of dust to the flask
Responding Variable:
Ability to grow mold (microorganisms) in the broth
Controlled Variable:
Part of the experiment in which the manipulated variable is not changes in any way from normal condition
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Cell Theory States
1. All living things are made up one or more cells and the materials produced by these cells
2. All life functions take place in cells, making them the smallest unit of life
3. All cells are produced from preexisting cells through the process of cell division
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Cell
The cell is the basic unit of life
Organisms may be compromised of a single cell (Unicellular) or many cells (Multicellular)
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Organelles:
Specialized structures within a cell that carry out specific functions
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Cell Membrane
Selectively permeable membrane that separates the inside of a cell from its exterior environment
Found in both animal & plant cells
Allows some substance into the cell while preventing others from entering
Composed of a phospholipid bilayer
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Cytoplasm
Thick liquid (aqueous solution) that fills the cell and holds the organelles in place
Found in both animal & plant cells
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Nucleus
Membrane-bound organelles that contain the cells' genetic material (DNA)
Found in both animal & plant cells
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Mitochondrion (Plural Mitochondria)
Organelle where cellular respiration takes place (Provides energy for the
cell)
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Ribosome
Organelle where genetic instructions are translated into amino acids
(Manufactured protein)
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Lysosome
Enzyme-filled organelles that serve to break down waste materials inside the cell (Garbage Men)
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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Folded, tube-like organelle covered in ribosomes
Synthesizes & transports protein
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Golgi Apparatus
Processes & packages macromolecules for secretion outside of the cell
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Centrioles
Cell division, a special arrangement of the cell
Only in Animal Cell
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Folded tube-like organelle (NOT covered in ribosomes)
Synthesizes and transports lipids and steroids
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Plant Cell
Has the same essential composition as an animal cell, with a few distinct
differences
Like the nucleus, cell membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and cytoplasm,
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Cell Wall
In addition to a cell membrane, plants cell are surrounded by a cell wall
Provides rigidity and strength to the cell and protects against mechanical
stresses (E.g. Smushing)
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Chloroplasts
Organelles where photosynthesis takes place
In addition to plants, certain protists (algae) possess chloroplasts
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Vacuole
The enclosed compartment is used for storage
All plants & fungi cells contain vacuoles, some animals, protists & bacterial cells do
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Phospholipid Bilayer
Composed of a phosphate group & diglycerides (double lipid tail)
Phosphate is polar & thus water-soluble (hydrophilic)
Diglyceride is non-polar & thus water-insoluble (hydrophobic)
The hydrophilic end positions itself towards the outside & inside of the cell
The hydrophobic lipid tails face inwards, creating the interior of the cell membrane
Cell membrane referred to as the fluid-mosaic model, with proteins (that enable the transport of molecules) embedded in the phospholipid bilayer
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Solute
A substance that is dissolved (Sugar, salts, proteins, etc)
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Solvent
A substance that does the dissolving (Ex. water)
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Particle Model of Matter
1. All matter is made up of particles
2. Particles in matter are constantly moving, Particles move least in solids & most in gases. Adding/taking away energy will affect the movement of the particles.
3. The particles of matter are attracted to one another or are bonded together.
4. Particles have spaces between them that are smallest in solids (EXCEPT ice) & largest in gases
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Diffusion:
The net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration due to kinetic energy & random motion
Particles will move along a concentration gradient until equilibrium is achieved.
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Isotonic
A solution that has the SAME concentration of solutes as another solution
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Hypotonic
A solution that has a LOWER concentration of solute than another solution
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Hypertonic
A solution that has a HIGHER concentration of solute than another solution
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Osmosis
Refers to the diffusion of water across a cell membrane
It occurs when a solute cannot pass through a cell membrane, BUT water can
Water always moves from hypotonic —> to hypertonic
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Facilitated Diffusion
Substances move from an area of high concentration (hypertonic) outside of the cell to an area of low concentration (hypotonic) inside the cell
Substances move through proteins (channel & carrier proteins) that help facilitate larger molecules to cross the membrane
Still moving along the concentration gradient
High concentration —> to Low Concentration
Ex. Polar molecules & ions that cannot pass through the non-polar
membrane interior
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Active Transport
Substances move from an area of low concentration (hypotonic) outside of the cell to an area of higher concentration (hypertonic) inside the cell
The particles are moving against the concentration against
Low Concentration —> to High Concentration
Because substances are being moved against their concentration gradient, energy is required to do this
The energy comes from a substance called ATP
Ex. Glucose into intestinal cells, certain ions
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Endocytosis
Vesicles are formed around a particle, taking the particle into the
cell
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Exocytosis
Vesicles are pushed to the cell membrane, rupturing the vesicles
and releasing contents to the outside
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Meristems
Produce root & shoot tissue
Particularly high rate of mitosis (Cell division)
Site of “growth”
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Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
The outer layer of cells
The outermost cell layer of a plant
Includes waxy cuticle
Prevents water loss
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Ground Tissue
Layer beneath dermal tissue
Strength & support, stores water, nutrients
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Vascular Tissue
Transport of materials
There are 2 types: Xylem & Phloem
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Xylem
Moves water & dissolves in nutrients from the roots up to the stem &
the leaves where these substances may be used in photosynthesis
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Sieve Tube Cells
Forms the phloem—long continuous tubes with tiny holes in them, through which cytoplasm extends
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Phloem
Transport sugars from the leaves (produced by photosynthesis) to other parts of the plant
Some of the sugars transported through the phloem get stored as starch in:
Roots: Carrots, sweet potatoes
Stems: Ginger, potatoes
Leaves: Green onion, Rhubarb
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Companion Cells
Connected to see tube cells, direct their activites
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Upper Epidermis
One cell layer thick
Transparent, allowing light to pass through
Few or no chloroplasts
The upper surface is covered by waxy, waterproof cuticle
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Spongy Layer
Beneath Palisade Layer
Contain a few chloroplasts (some photosynthesize)
Primarily used for storage of sugars & amino acids from the palisade layer
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Palisade Layer
Beneath upper epidermis
Cylindrical cells with many chloroplasts
Carry out most of the Photosynthesis for the leaf
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Mesophyll
Specialized ground tissue inside a leaf that’s comprised of the palisade tissue & the spongy layer together
(”Meso-” means “middle”)
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Lower Epidermis
Similar in composition to the upper epidermis (has cuticle)
Contains several tiny spores called stomata
Stomata allow carbon dioxide to enter the leaf and allow oxygen to leave
Each stomata (singular) is flanked by two sausages-shaped guard cells
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Roots
Absorb water & mineral from the soil
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Root Hair
Tiny projections that increase surface area for absorption
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Cuticle:
Waxy, non-cellular, waterproof coating that covers a plant's leaves and stems
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Stomata (Singular Stoma)
Pores that allow gases to pass through the epidermis of a leaf
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Guard Cells:
Specialized epidemic cells that swell & contract to control gas exchange through a stoma in a leaf
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Photosynthesis
“Photo” = light; “Synthesis” = Putting together
Carbon dioxide from air and water from the soil, in the presence of light
produces glucose & oxygen gas
Water & carbon dioxide produce glucose & oxygen
6H2O + 6CO2 + energy (sunlight) = C6H12O6 + 6O2
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Cytoplasmic Streaming
Movement of cytoplasm in cells
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Cellular Respiration
All cells, including plant cells, must undergo cellular respiration
Cellular respiration provides the energy to fuel the activities of a cell
Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria
Glucose + Oxygen —> Carbon dioxide + Water
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
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Cohesion
The attraction of water molecules to other water molecules
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Root Pressure
Ions are actively transported into root cells
Water then follows the ions into the root (the hypertonic environment)
Creates a pressure forcing water up the xylem
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Adhesion
The attraction of water molecules to molecules of other substances
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Transpiration (Tension)
As plants transpire (water leaving the plant through stomata and lenticels) a tension/ pull is created, helping draw water up
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Plasmolysis
Process in which cells lose water to a hypertonic environment
When this happens to plant cells, cell membranes pull away from the cell wall, causing plants to go limp
If water is provided, vacuoles will re-swell, and plants will become turgid
(swollen)
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Tonicity
The measurement of the osmotic pressure of a cell relative to its
environment- Hypertonic, Hypotonic, Isotonic
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Source
The site where glucose is produced (leaf)
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Sink
The site where glucose is stored. used (Rest of plant)
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Lenticels
Blisters in the stems of plants, called lenticels, also allow for gas exchange
These function similarly to stomata
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Phototropism
In order to ensure that they receive adequate light for photosynthesis, plants have adopted phototropism
Growth in response to light (Plants grow towards the light)
Stems exhibit positive phototropism
They grow toward the light
Roots exhibit negative phototropism
They grow away from the light
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Gravitropism
In addition to light, plants also grow in response to gravity
This is gravitropism
Plants grow their shoot upwards & roots of the plant downwards
Stems that grow against gravitational force, so stems exhibit negative gravitropism
Stems growing toward light will receive the energy required by the
chloroplasts in their leaves for photosynthesis
Roots grow with gravitational force, so roots exhibit positive gravitropism
Roots growing in the same direction as gravity are more likely to find soil,
water & minerals
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Weather
Short-term temperature & precipitation for a particular region, at a particular (short) time
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Climate
Long-term average temperature & precipitation for a particular region
Minimum of 30 years
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Scientific Evidence
Evidence that has been measured using a scientific instrument
Involves data collection
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Climate Change
A period of 50 years or more where Earth’s average temperature has
increased or decreased
“Needs to be measured over a long period of time…”
Earth is currently in a period of warming
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Anecdotal Evidence
Evidence that is gathered based on people’s observation
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Biosphere
All living organisms on Earth and the environment that supports
It is composed of:
Litoshpere (Land)
Hydrosphere (water)
Atmosphere (Air) [Divided into 4 sub parts]
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Lithosphere
The solid portion of Earth
Composed of rocks, minerals and elements
Floats above the semi-fluid portion of the upper mantle
Extends to 100 km below the Earth’s surface
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Hydrosphere
Accounts for ALL of the water on Earth (Ex. Liquid, vapour, ice)
About 97% is salt water and 3% is freshwater (most of it is unavailable in polar ice caps)
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Atmosphere
Approximately 78% is nitrogen 21% is oxygen gas and 1% is a mix of other gases
Rises 800 km from Earth’s surface
Also composed of “atmospheric dust” which is living or non-living particles
The main layers:
Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere
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Troposphere
The first layer is 0-10 km above sea level
15 C to -60 C
Contains 80% of atmospheric gases by mass and 90% of water vapour
The only level that has enough oxygen and the right temperature to support many living organisms
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Stratosphere
The second layer is 10-15 km above the Earth’s surface
-60 C - 0 C
Contains most of the ozone gas, which forms the ozone layer
The ozone layer absorbs large amounts of UV energy from the sun’s rays
Commercial jets planes fly in the low stratosphere to avoid turbulence
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Mesosphere
The third layer: is 50-80 km above sea level
0 C to -100 C
Very few gas molecules present
Too low for spacecraft, too high for weather balloons or aircraft.
It’s not very well understood
Meteors burn up when they enter this layer
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Thermosphere
The fourth layer: 80-300 km from sea level
-100 C to 1500 C (The hottest layer)
Very little gases
Temperature changes not yet understood by scientists
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What affects the climate of an area
Climate can be influenced by:
The latitude of the area (Horizontal line)
The altitude of the area (Vertical line)
Large bodies of water (Ex. Ocean water, lakes, rivers, etc)
Ocean currents
Surface features
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Insolation
The amount of solar energy (radiation) received by a region on the Earth’s surface
Depends on angle of inclination, angle of incidence latitude, albedo and cloud cover
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The angle of inclination
The tilt of the Earth’s axis is 23.5 degrees from the perpendicular of the plane of its orbit
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Solstice
One of two points in Earth's orbit at which the poles are the most tilted toward or away from the sun
Winter solstice: The shortest day of the year (Dec. 21st)
Summer solstice: The longest day of the year (June. 21st)
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Angle of Incidence
The angle between a ray falling on a surface and the line perpendicular to that surface
The angle of Incidence at the equator is 0 degree
The Earth’s shape and the angle of incidence play a large role in creating Earth’s climate
From the equator to the poles there is a decrease in insolation year-round
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Albedo Effect
Reflection by the Lithosphere and the Hydrosphere
The albedo of a surface is the percentage of solar radiation that it reflects
Light vs dark-coloured surfaces
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Cloud Cover
Clouds, atmospheric dust, gases etc. can reflect, scatter or absorb solar radiation
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Earth's Energy Budget/ Balance
Energy (from the sun) in, energy reflected (back to space) out
Important to maintain for life to thrive
The difference between the amount of incoming radiation and outgoing radiation re-emitted from Earth’s surfaces and atmosphere
Incoming radiation is ALL of the solar energy that reaches the Earth’s surface, not including the solar radiation that is reflected.
The net radiation budget is balanced for Earth as a whole but some regions have an unbalanced net radiation budget
The poles always have a net radiation budget deficit
Regions near the equator have a surplus
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Jet Streams
A band of fast-moving air in the stratosphere
Because of their high altitude, these winds are not subject to as much friction and are much faster than winds closer to the Earth’s surface.
Earth has several jet streams, which circle the Earth at various latitudes.
During the cooler months, jet streams are closer to the equator and move more quickly.
Changes in jet streams are important for predicting weather changes and affect the formation of storms and cyclones.
198
Wind
Wind is the movement of cool air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
Warm air is less dense than cold air
Warmer regions of the atmosphere exert less atmospheric pressure than cooler regions
199
The Coriolis Effect
The deflection of a moving object from a single path by the rotation of the Earth
Objects move to the Right in the Northern Hemisphere and objects move to the Left in the Southern Hemisphere
199
Prevailing Winds
Prevailing winds are the result of the Coriolis effect
This causes wind to turn counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
200
Fronts
Boundaries between warm and cold air
Movement of warm and cold air can cause chinooks, thunderstorms, monsoons and tornadoes
201
Convection Currents
The convection currents in the atmosphere and the Coriolis Effect cause global wind patterns
202
Transpiration
Plants of the Earth lose water from stomata
Phase Change: Liquid to Gas
202
The Greenhouse Effect
A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass roof.
Greenhouses are used to grow plants (Ex. tomatoes, tropical plants, flowers, etc.)
In the daytime, sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside.
At nighttime, it’s colder outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm inside.
This is because the glass walls of the greenhouse trap the Sun’s heat!
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The Water Cycle
Water in the Hydrosphere may be presented as solid, liquid or gas
As water undergoes phase changes, energy is released or absorbed
The Water Cycle:
The cycle of process by which water circulates between the Earth’s oceans, atmosphere, and land
Also referred to as the Hydrologic Cycle
204
Condensation
Clouds are formed from evaporated water
Phase Change: Gas to cloud (soon to be liquid)
204
Evaporation
Solar radiation heats up the hydrosphere
Phase change: Liquid to Gas
205
Precipitation
Clouds gain mass and lose mass as rain, sleet, hail and snow
Phase Change: Cloud to liquid
206
Ground Water & Run-Off
Fallen precipitation seeps back into the large bodies of water
207
Effect of Water on Climate
Large bodies of water moderate the climate of an area
In the summer, the water absorbs heat, cooling the surrounding land
In the winter, the water releases heat, warming up the surrounding land
Vancouver’s climate is moderate because it is by the Pacific Ocean
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Specific Heat Capacity
The quantity of energy required to change the temperature of a 1g sample of something by 1°C.
An object with a high specific heat capacity requires more energy to
change its temperature (takes more time to heat up and cool down).
An object with low specific heat capacity requires less energy to change its temperature (takes less time to heat up and cool down).
Different substances have different thermal properties
One property is the amount of energy the substance can absorb before it changes temperature
The specific heat capacity [c] of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1°C
The specific Heat Capacity of water is 4.19 J/g°C → this is a relatively high specific heat capacity
208
Conduction
Energy transfer through touch
209
Convection
Energy transfer through air particles
210
Radiation
Energy transfer through waves of radiation
211
Phase Changes
The heating curve of water
When applying constant heat over time this curve is formed
Another way to look at the phase changes is with heat on the x-axis
As you go right more heat is added (endothermic) and the temperature increases
211
Quantity of Thermal Energy: Q
Quantity of Thermal Energy, Q is the amount of thermal energy absorbed or released when the temperature of a specific mass of a substance changes by a certain number of degrees
212
Heat of Vaporization
The heat of vaporization is the amount of energy absorbed when 1 mol changes from liquid to vapour phase or vapour to liquid
213
Heat of Fusion
The heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of energy absorbed when 1 mol of the substance changes from solid to liquid phase or liquid to solid
214
Biome
Major geographical regions that have similar environmental conditions and life forms
It is the largest geographical/ biotic unit
Can change drastically over time from changes in
Earth’s tilt (angle of inclination), Earth’s orbit around the sun (shape fluctuations) Continental drift (moving continents), Weathering, Catastrophic events (meteors, earthquakes, floods, etc)
There a 6 Terrestrial Biomes
215
Climatograph
A graphical tool used to compare the climates of different regions
Plots the average monthly temperatures ( °C) and the average total monthly precipitation (mm)
Snowfall is usually converted to rain (10 mm snow = 1 mm rain)
These values are usually averaged over 30 years
Months of the year are on the X-axis
There are 2 Y-axis
Left —> Precipitation (Bar graphs)
Right —> Temperature (Line graph)
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Tundra
Located just south of the ice-covered polar seas in the southern hemisphere and near the poles in the Northern Hemisphere
Winters are long (6-9 months) with temperatures that drop to -40°C
Summers are short and cool
Less than 25 cm of precipitation per year
Inhabitants:
Lemmings, Caribou, Arctic fox, Wolves, Arctic hare
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Taiga
South of tundra (50°N - 60°N)
Coniferous forest biome
Stretches across Canada, Northern Europe & Asia
Winter is long and cold
35-100 cm of precipitation per year (mostly snow)
Most animals hibernate or migrate
Inhabitants:
Beavers, rabbits, muskrats, Fur-bearing mammals
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Temperate Deciduous Forest
Found in Northern & Southern hemispheres below 50 °C North or South
Has 4 distinct seasons
75-150 cm of precipitation per year, evenly distributed throughout the year
Temperatures range from below-freezing in the water to 30°C or more in the summer
Inhabitant:
Deer, foxes, squirrels, mice, snakes, birds
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Grassland
Most continents have a grassland biome
25-75 cm of precipitation per year
A prolonged dry season where little to no rain falls
Lack of precipitation prevents the development of forests
Rich & Fertile soil
Inhabitants:
Ground squirrels, Pheasants, burrowing owls
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Desert
Found in the Northern & Southern Hemisphere between 13° & 35° North & South
Direst of the biomes (less than 25 cm of precipitation per year)
Soil retains little to no moisture, rate of evaporation exceeds the precipitation
Supports limited plant life
Infrequent rains that are heavy but brief
Inhabitants:
Lizard, rattlesnakes, vultures, coyotes
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Tropical Rainforest
Located along the equator
Lush, green plant growth
Rains nearly every day
Stays at a constant temperature
Nutrient-poor soil because heavy rains leech out the nutrients
Inhabitants:
Many, many, many species -birds, frogs, monkeys, snakes, lizards, insects
