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PSYCH 1001 > science and states > Flashcards

science and states Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a construct in psychology?

A

A hypothetical concept created by humans to help explain and understand psychological phenomena (e.g., intelligence, motivation).

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2
Q

What is the difference between conceptual and operational definitions?

A

A conceptual definition explains the meaning of a construct in theoretical terms, while an operational definition specifies how it will be measured or manipulated in a study.

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3
Q

What are weasel words, and why are they problematic in scientific writing?

A

Weasel words are vague terms (e.g., ‘scientists say’, ‘may help’) that make unsupported claims sound credible without providing clear evidence.

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4
Q

What is reification?

A

Reification is treating an abstract concept as if it were a concrete, real thing (e.g., treating intelligence as a measurable object).

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5
Q

What is the pragmatic fallacy?

A

Believing that something is true because it works or has a practical effect, regardless of its scientific validity.

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6
Q

What is the main issue with anecdotal evidence?

A

It is often biased, lacks control, and cannot establish causality or be generalized.

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7
Q

What is the difference between a case study and an anecdote?

A

A case study is a detailed, systematically recorded analysis, while an anecdote is a personal story lacking scientific rigor.

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8
Q

What is the purpose of a control condition in experiments?

A

To rule out alternative explanations and isolate the effect of the independent variable.

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9
Q

What distinguishes a true experiment from a quasi-experiment?

A

True experiments use random allocation to conditions, while quasi-experiments use pre-existing groups without full randomization.

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10
Q

What is the role of random selection and random allocation?

A

Random selection improves generalizability (external validity); random allocation ensures internal validity by controlling confounding variables.

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11
Q

What is the difference between mode, median, and mean?

A

Mode: most frequent score; Median: middle score; Mean: arithmetic average. Mean is most affected by outliers.

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12
Q

How do you calculate standard deviation?

A

Step 1: Find the mean.
Step 2: Subtract the mean from each score.
Step 3: Square each deviation.
Step 4: Add the squared deviations.
Step 5: Divide the sum by the number of scores.
Step 6: Take the square root of the result from Step 5.

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13
Q

Why can’t we average deviation scores directly?

A

Because positive and negative deviations cancel each other out, we square them before averaging.

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14
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

The tendency to seek and interpret evidence that confirms existing beliefs, ignoring contrary evidence.

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15
Q

What does a positively skewed distribution indicate?

A

That there are a few very high scores pulling the mean above the median.

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16
Q

What is professional integrity in psychology?

A

It refers to being professionally, ethically, and personally consistent—upholding scientific values and avoiding personal bias.

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17
Q

What does ‘argument from authority’ mean?

A

It’s a logical fallacy where a claim is accepted as true because an ‘authority’ or expert said so, rather than on evidence.

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18
Q

What is an ‘ad hominem’ fallacy?

A

Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself.

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19
Q

What is the ‘appeal to antiquity’ fallacy?

A

Assuming something is true or valid because it has been believed for a long time.

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20
Q

Why is peer review important in science?

A

It ensures that research is critically evaluated and improved by experts before publication, increasing reliability and validity.

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21
Q

What is pseudoscience and why is it harmful?

A

Pseudoscience lacks critical analysis and peer review, often spreading misleading or unverified information that hinders scientific progress.

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22
Q

What is the ‘halo effect’ in research?

A

Believing someone’s claims because of their status or reputation, rather than the quality of their evidence.

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23
Q

What is the replication crisis in psychology?

A

The issue that many psychological studies cannot be replicated, raising concerns about the reliability of findings.

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24
Q

What is p-hacking?

A

Manipulating data or analyses until nonsignificant results become statistically significant, compromising the integrity of findings.

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25
Why should no scientific theory be beyond criticism?
Because science thrives on skepticism and testing—criticizing theories helps refine or replace them with better explanations.
26
What is a construct in psychology?
A hypothetical concept created by humans to help represent or explain psychological phenomena (e.g., intelligence, motivation).
27
What are pre-scientific constructs?
Vague and unstandardized concepts like 'hot/cold energies' or 'spirit forces' that were used before scientific measurement.
28
What makes a construct scientific?
Scientific constructs are defined precisely using measurable units (e.g., seconds, degrees, grams), though they are still approximations.
29
What are weasel words?
Vague, misleading terms used to imply scientific credibility without evidence, such as 'scientists say' or 'may help'.
30
What is a conceptual definition?
A theoretical explanation of what a construct is, what it is not, and how it relates to other concepts or theories.
31
What is an operational definition?
A statement of how a construct will be measured or manipulated in a specific study.
32
Why might operational definitions be limited?
They simplify complex constructs for measurement, which can misrepresent the full nature or scope of the concept.
33
What is reification?
Treating an abstract construct as if it were a concrete, physical entity (e.g., treating intelligence as a 'thing').
34
What is the pragmatic fallacy?
Assuming something is true just because it appears to work or has practical effects.
35
What is falsifiability and why is it important?
A theory must be able to be tested and potentially proven false—this is key for scientific credibility.
36
Why can self-report be unreliable in research?
People may lie or give socially desirable answers; they also may not have access to their own true thoughts or behaviors.
37
What is a direct measure in psychological research?
An objective method for assessing behavior or conditions (e.g., drug tests, brain scans) rather than relying on self-report.
38
What is the role of a hypothesis in science?
A hypothesis, derived from theory or previous research, allows us to make specific predictions that can be tested empirically.
39
What is the difference between experimental, null, and alternate hypotheses?
Experimental: predicts an effect. Null: predicts no effect. Alternate: opposite of the null, predicts a difference or effect.
40
What is confirmation bias?
The tendency to seek out or interpret evidence in ways that confirm existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
41
What is the purpose of descriptive statistics?
To summarize and describe the basic features of a dataset, including central tendency and variability.
42
What are the three main measures of central tendency?
Mode (most frequent score), Median (middle score), Mean (average of scores).
43
What are the pros and cons of the mode?
Pro: simple, works for qualitative data. Con: ignores most data, unreliable with small samples.
44
What are the pros and cons of the median?
Pro: not affected by extreme scores. Con: doesn't reflect all values.
45
What are the pros and cons of the mean?
Pro: uses all values. Con: affected by outliers, may not be meaningful (e.g., 2.5 kids).
46
What is skewness in distributions?
A measure of asymmetry. Positive skew: tail on the right. Negative skew: tail on the left.
47
How is variability measured in statistics?
Using range, deviation scores, variance, and standard deviation.
48
Why is the sum of deviation scores always zero?
Because the mean is the balance point—scores above and below cancel out.
49
How do you calculate standard deviation?
Square deviation scores, sum them, divide by the number of scores (variance), then take the square root.
50
What does a large standard deviation indicate?
Greater variability in scores; data points are more spread out from the mean.
51
What is the null hypothesis?
A statement suggesting no effect or difference; used as a baseline for testing.
52
Why is 'retaining' the null different from 'accepting' it?
Retaining means insufficient evidence to reject it—not that it’s true, just not disproven.
53
What is the difference between statistical and practical significance?
Statistical significance shows an effect unlikely due to chance (p < .05); practical significance asks if the effect is meaningful or useful.
54
What is an independent variable?
The variable that is actively manipulated or changed by the researcher in an experiment.
55
What is a dependent variable?
The variable that is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.
56
What is random allocation?
Assigning participants to experimental conditions at random to ensure each group is equivalent at the start.
57
What is random selection?
Randomly choosing participants from a population to ensure a representative and unbiased sample.
58
What is a correlation study?
A study that measures two variables simultaneously to determine the strength and direction of their relationship without manipulation.
59
What defines a true experiment?
An experiment in which the researcher has full control over all independent variables and uses random allocation.
60
What is a quasi-experiment?
An experiment involving some control over variables, but with at least one variable involving pre-existing groups without full random allocation.
61
What is internal validity?
The degree to which changes in the dependent variable can confidently be attributed to changes in the independent variable.
62
What is external validity?
The degree to which research findings can be generalized to other populations or settings.
63
What is blinding in research?
A technique to prevent participants or researchers from knowing which condition participants are in, to reduce bias.
64
What is a double-blind study?
A study in which both the participant and the researcher assessing the data do not know which condition the participant is in.
65
What is replication in science?
The process of repeating a study to determine if the same results can be consistently observed by different researchers.
66
What is a false dichotomy?
A logical fallacy that assumes there are only two opposing outcomes or options when in reality more may exist.
67
What is statistical significance?
A result is statistically significant if the p-value is less than 0.05, meaning the result is unlikely due to chance.
68
What is practical significance?
It considers whether an effect is large or meaningful enough to matter in real-world applications, regardless of statistical significance.
69
What is a Type I error (alpha)?
Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true; typically controlled at a 5% threshold.
70
What is a Type II error?
Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false.
71
How do liberal and conservative criteria affect hypothesis testing?
Liberal: Easier to reject the null, more false positives. Conservative: Harder to reject the null, more false negatives.
72
What is statistical power?
The probability of detecting an effect if it truly exists; also called sensitivity.
73
What affects statistical power?
Effect size, sample size, and variability of the effect.
74
Why is p < .05 commonly used as a threshold?
It balances the risk of Type I and Type II errors, minimizing false conclusions while still detecting true effects.
75
Why is practical significance important?
A result can be statistically significant but too small to be useful or worth implementing in the real world.
76
What is the appeal to ignorance fallacy?
Assuming something is true because it hasn’t been proven false (e.g., 'We can’t disprove it, so it must be true').
77
What is a false dichotomy?
Presenting only two options when more possibilities exist.
78
What is denialism?
The refusal to accept well-supported evidence or entire scientific theories (e.g., vaccine denialism).

PSYCH 1001 (6 decks)

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