Science Section III Flashcards
(499 cards)
1
Q
How many people don’t have access to clean water?
A
1-2 billion, mostly in developing countries
2
Q
What are the 2 main categories of water pollution?
A
point-source pollution and non-point source pollution
3
Q
What is point-source pollution?
A
pollution released from distinct, confined locations, like a factory
4
Q
What is non-point source pollution?
A
pollution that collects from large areas, like runoff from farming regions
5
Q
What are parasites, bacteria, and viruses considered as?
A
pathogens
6
Q
Are large-scale disease outbreaks from water systems in the US common?
A
No, they are rare and don’t occur often
7
Q
Where are disease outbreaks from water systems common?
A
developing parts of the world
8
Q
What are the major water-borne diseases?
A
cholera and hepatitis
9
Q
What’s oxygen-demanding waste?
A
material with organic matter depletes oxygen when decomposed
10
Q
When does oxygen-demanding waste typically get washed into a body of water?
A
during a rainstorm
11
Q
Food scraps, human waste, and animals waste are all what type of waste?
A
oxygen-demanding waste
12
Q
What are inorganic compounds?
A
chemical compounds that don’t come from plants and animals
13
Q
What are the 2 most important inorganic compounds?
A
nitrogen and phosphorus
14
Q
What are 2 inorganic compounds that are most likely to limit growth in a waterbody?
A
nitrogen and phosphorus
15
Q
What happens if too much nitrogen and phosphorus are present in a waterbody?
A
they can overfeed the body of water, leading to eutrophication
16
Q
What is eutrophication?
A
the excessive growth of algae due to an oversupply of nutrients
17
Q
What happens when the excessive algae, due to eutrophication, die?
A
they decompose, depleting large amounts of oxygen and bringing down fish populations
18
Q
What are the major terrestrial sources of nitrogen?
A
farm runoff, sewage treatment plants, and acid precipitation
19
Q
What are the major terrestrial sources of phosphorus?
A
rocks and minerals, fertilizer runoff, and (in the past) detergents
20
Q
What are the major sources of nitrate and sulfate?
A
acid precipitation
21
Q
What are the major terrestrial sources of chloride?
A
by-products of sewage treatment
22
Q
What are the major terrestrial sources of metals?
A
industrial plants
23
Q
What are some of the most toxic water pollutants that are metals?
A
lead, copper, arsenic, and mercury
24
Q
When did mercury receive a lot of attention as an inorganic water contaminant? (decade)
A
the early 2000s
25
Is mercury an organic or inorganic compound?
inorganic
26
What does POPs stand for?
Persistant Organic Pollutants
27
What are POPs?
toxic chemicals created by humans for industrial purposes that persist in the environment
28
What is special about POPs?
they are very persistent and can accumulate in organisms
29
What does PCBs stand for?
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
30
What are PCBs?
highly toxic and carcinogenic chemicals
31
What were PCBs used in?
manufacturing plastics and insulating electrical transformers
32
When did PCBs stopped being used?
1979
33
Although POPs are no longer manufactured in the US, why are they still present in the environment?
because of their persistence
34
What are sand, silt, and clay examples of?
sediment
35
What are sediments?
nonchemical pollutants that become mobilized when the soil is disturbed
36
When do sediments become mobilized?
when the soil is disturbed
37
How do sediments harm aquatic ecosystems?
they can clog fish gills, reduce infiltration of sunlight, and reduce productivity
38
What happens to the water temperature when humans alter water flow so that it moves more slowly, receives more sunlight, or enters a shallower waterbody?
it is going to increase
39
What happens when water temperature is increased due to human activity?
thermal pollution
40
Can more or less oxygen be dissolved when water is warmer?
less
41
How do warmer waters affect the respiration rate of the organisms?
it causes them to increase
42
What is a side effect of increased respiration rate?
it can make organisms more susceptible to disease and can affect reproduction
43
What is the main culprit of ocean and shoreline pollution?
crude oil and other petroleum products
44
How does oil react when it hits water?
it spreads across the water for hundreds of miles, and leaves a thick covering that is hard to remove
45
Is it easy to remove oil once it has entered water?
No
46
What are the most common sources of oil spills?
off-shore drilling and oil tankers
47
What was the perhaps the most notorious recent spill?
the Deepwater Horizon spill of 2010
48
Where was the Deepwater Horizon spill?
Gulf of Mexico / America
49
When was the Deepwater Horizon spill?
2010
50
How many gallons of oil were spilled in the Deepwater Horizon spill?
210 million gallons
51
What are ways to cleanup oil spills?
floating booms to keep it from spreading, skimming oil from the water's surface, and chemicals to break down the oil
52
How do chemical dispersants help clean up oil spills?
they break the oil down into particles small enough to be broken down by sunlight and bacteria
53
The dumping of soil waste in open waters has been reduced since when?
the early 1980s
54
What are the negative effects of beach garbage?
it can be dangerous to marine organisms and even people
55
Toxic medical waste poses a threat to which people in particular?
children
56
How do plastic holders and plastic bags affect animals?
it can strangle them
57
Plastic debris in landfills or waterbodies can degrade over time into ______________ or ______________.
microplastics, nanoplastics
58
What are microplastics?
plastic particles smaller than 5 mm
59
What are nanoplastics?
plastic particles smaller than .0001 mm
60
What is wastewater?
water from houses and buildings destined for a sewage treatment plant or septic system
61
How is wastewater from toilets?
harmful and must be treated before it can be returned to the environment
62
What wastewater is less harmful to the environment?
wastewater that isn't from toilets, like sinks and showers
63
What is wastewater from sources other than toilets called?
gray water
64
What is gray water often used for?
activities such as watering lawns
65
What metals does human sewage often contain high amounts of?
phosphate, nitrate, and more
66
What is human sewage?
oxygen-demanding material that can contain pathogenic organisms and high levels of phosphate, nitrate, and more
67
What do wastewater treatment facilities replicate?
natural processes
68
Where are traditional sewage plants usually used?
developed countries
69
How many phases are in traditional sewage plants?
2, sometimes 3
70
What are the phases of a traditional sewage plants?
primary treatment, secondary treatment, and sometimes tertiary treatment
71
What happens during primary treatment of sewage plants?
solid material is removed and dried out
72
What percent of solid waste is removed in primary treatment of sewage plants?
40%-50%
73
What is the solid that is removed during primary treatment called?
sludge
74
What does sludge usually contain high amounts of?
metals
75
Sludge contains higher amounts of metals if it comes from where?
a municipality, like an industrial business
76
What happens after the sludge is removed in the sewage treatment process?
secondary treatment occurs
77
What is secondary treatment in sewage plants?
where the breakdown of organic matter, which would occur naturally, is accelerated
78
At the end of secondary treatment, what percent of original pollutants have been removed?
85%-90%
79
What happens after secondary treatment?
the water is disinfected and released into a river or lake, or it goes through tertiary treatment and then this occurs
80
How many years ago were many harbors and waterways badly polluted?
40-50
81
When was the Clean Water Act passed?
1972
82
When was the Safe Drinking Water Act passed?
1986
83
When were the Water Resources Development Acts passed?
1986-1992
84
What have the laws passed on water protection and safety done?
worked to protect surface water
85
What does the Clean Water Act require?
the establishment of Water Quality Standards and a Total Maximum Daily Load
86
What do Water Quality Standards do?
place an upper limit on the concentration of certain pollutants in waterbodies
87
What is a Total Maximum Daily Load?
the maximum amount of a pollutant that is allowed to enter a waterbody
88
What is air pollution?
the emission of compounds into the atmosphere at levels high enough to harm organisms and nonliving things
89
Volcanoes and natural forest fires are sources of air pollution that are human caused or natural sources?
natural sources
90
Automobiles, power plants, and factories are sources of air pollution that are human-caused or natural sources?
human-caused
91
Air pollution usually refers to pollution in the _____________.
troposphere
92
The troposphere is the first __ kilometers of the atmosphere. (SCIENCE!!!!! Different from SS)
10
93
The troposphere is the first __ miles of the atmosphere. (SCIENCE!!!!! Different from SS)
6
94
What is tropospheric pollution sometimes called?
ground-level pollution
95
What science discipline was used in the development of air pollutant regulations?
environmental science
96
When was the US Clean Air Act (CAA) passed?
1970
97
What did scientists do for the CAA?
they identified the 6 most common and harmful pollutants
98
What are the pollutants listed in the CAA known as?
primary pollutants
99
What are the primary pollutants in the CAA?
sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, lead, particulate matter, and ground-level ozone
100
What is the chemical formula for sulfur dioxide?
SO2
101
What are natural sources of SO2?
volcanic eruptions
102
What are anthropogenic sources of SO2?
burning of fossil fuels, like coal and oil
103
What do all living things contain?
sulfur
104
Why do fossil fuels release SO2 when burned?
because all living things (or once living things) contain sulfur
105
What part of the body does SO2 affect?
SO2 harms mammalian respiratory systems
106
SO2 is particularly harmful for what people?
people with asthma or respiratory illnesses
107
What can SO2 do in the atmosphere?
it can undergo a chemical reaction to form sulfuric acid
108
SO2 can undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form what?
sulfuric acid
109
Sulfuric acid is one of the main components in what?
acid rain
110
What percent of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas (N2)?
0.78
111
What does combustion of N2 in the atmosphere lead to the formation of?
various nitrogen oxides
112
What do nitrogen oxides play a role in forming?
ozone and other common air pollutants
113
Nitrogen oxides can undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form what?
nitric acid
114
What is carbon monoxide (CO)?
a colorless, odorless gas that is formed during incomplete combustion of organic matter
115
What is a major source of CO emissions?
automobile emissions
116
What does CO do in the mammalian body?
it binds with hemoglobin and intereferes with the transport of oxygen
117
What does CO bind with in the body?
hemoglobin
118
What is hemoglobin?
an oxygen transporting protein in the mammalian body
119
What does CO interfere with the transport of in the body?
oxygen
120
What can exposure to CO cause?
dizziness, headaches, confusion, loss of consciousness, and even death
121
When did the use of leaded gasoline end in the US?
the 1970s
122
When was the use of leaded gasoline ended globally?
2021
123
What was the last country to use leaded gasoline?
Algeria
124
What impacts does lead have?
blood production, producing anemia, and can have neurological impacts
125
What is particulate matter?
solid or liquid particles suspended in air
126
Particulate matter most commonly comes from a class of pollutants resulting from what fuels?
dirty burning fuels, like coal, oil, and wood stoves
127
What are some examples of natural sources that produce particulates?
forest fires and volcanoes
128
What are some examples of anthropogenic sources that produce particulates?
coal, oil, and wood stoves
129
What is the size of a particulate?
0.01 to 100 microns in diameter
130
Particulates are the thickness of what?
a human hair
131
What impacts does particulate matter have on humans?
they can cause lung cancer and other issues in the lungs
132
What do particulates block?
sunlight
133
What are photochemical air pollutants?
a class of air pollutants formed from action by the Sun on compounds that are oxides
134
What type of compound forms photochemical air pollutants?
oxides
135
Photochemical pollutants are among the compounds that comprise _______________ _______.
photochemical smog
136
What is photochemical smog?
the haze that appears over cities
137
Why do cities like Los Angeles experience photochemical smog in particular?
because they are surrounded by mountains, which help trap the smog
138
What is the most important photochemical air pollutant?
ozone
139
What is the chemical formula for ozone?
O3
140
Why is O3 the most important photochemical air pollutant?
because of its positive and negative effects
141
Where is O3 formed?
the stratosphere
142
What does O3 do in the stratosphere?
it absorbs UV light and removes harmful radiation
143
Ozone is 3 ________ molecules bound together? (element)
oxygen
144
What is ozone in the troposphere?
an oxidant harmful to plants and animals
145
How are the National Ambient Air Quality Standards different from the Clean Air Act?
the NAAQS includes more air pollutants, like mercury
146
How is mercury as an air pollutant produced?
through the burning of coal
147
The Hazardous Air Pollutant section is part of what legislation?
the Clean Air Act
148
What type of pollutant are most of the criteria pollutants classified as?
primary pollutants
149
What type of pollutant are smog and acid rain?
secondary pollutants
150
What are secondary pollutants?
pollutants that result from chemical reactions in the atmosphere, usually primary pollutants before transformed
151
What powers photochemical reactions?
solar energy, atmospheric water, and higher temperatures
152
What type of pollutants are nitric acid and sulfuric acid?
secondary pollutants
153
What pollutants do volcanoes release?
SO2, CO, NOx, and particulates
154
What pollutants do forest fires release?
CO, NOx, and particulates
155
What summer can provide a critical example of how wildfires impact air quality?
summer of 2023
156
What place in particular during the summer of 2023 produced high carbon emissions due to intensive forest fires?
Canada
157
How does temperature change with increasing altitude?
it typically decreases
158
What happens when a warm layer of air blankets a cooler layer below it?
atmospheric inversion
159
What happens to ground-level pollutants when atmospheric inversion occurs?
they gat trapped and accummulate in the troposphere
160
Where are atmospheric inversions particularly common?
cities with high concentrations of vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions
161
During atmospheric inversions, what are ground-level emissions trapped by?
an inversion layer
162
Non-renewable and renewable energy are what type of energy source?
primary energy sources
163
What type of energy source is electricity?
secondary energy source
164
What energy do electricity-generating power plants convert?
chemical potential energy to electrical potential energy
165
How do nonrenewable energy sources generate electricity?
they burn them and heat up water to produce steam, which turns a turbine and then a generator
166
What energy is electrical potential energy converted to when powering a motor?
kinetic energy
167
What energy is electrical potential energy converted to when powering lights?
radiant energy
168
What energy is electrical potential energy converted to when cooking?
heat energy
169
When were the plants that formed coal buried?
160 to 400 million years ago
170
What factors contributed to organisms being converted to coal?
limited decomposition and rich organic matter compacted by pressure and temperature over lots of time
171
Where did the tropical plants that formed coal live?
in swamps and amrshes
172
What are the types of coal from lesser to greater energy content?
peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite
173
What type of coal has the greatest energy content?
anthracite
174
What type of coal has the least energy content?
peat
175
Why is coal ideal?
because it is very energy-dense and plentiful
176
What is coal primarily used for?
electricity generation and industrial processes, like making steel
177
What ways are used to mine coal?
deep shaft mining and surface mining
178
What occurs with deep-shaft mining?
tunnels are dug as deep as 2,000 feet and people descend and mine the coal
179
How deep can the shafts in deep-shaft mining be?
up to 2,000 feet deep
180
What type of mining is digging a pit?
surface mining
181
What type of mining is removing a mountaintop?
surface mining
182
What are some adverse environmental impacts associated with coal mining?
the emission of harmful air pollutants, degraded water quality of nearby waterbodies, and acid mine drainage
183
What are some air pollutants produced by coal mining?
SO2, mercury, and particulate matter
184
What is petroleum?
the mixture of hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur that occurs in underground deposits
185
What is petroleum the mixture of?
hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur
186
Petroleum formed from the remains of what organisms?
ocean-dwelling plankton
187
When did the ocean-dwelling plankton that formed petroleum die and get buried?
65 to 250 million years ago
188
Petroleum often occurs in places with what type of rocks?
porous rocks, like sandstone, that are capped by nonporous rocks
189
What do petroleum reserves contain?
natural gas and oil
190
What must petroleum be extracted with?
wells, which pump up the petroleun from the ground
191
When the gas in the petroleum deposits is separated, what is the remaining product known as?
liquid petroleum or crude oil
192
What is another name for liquid petroleum?
crude oil
193
What is currently the greatest energy source in the US?
petroleum
194
Why is petroleum used so often?
it is very convenient, energy-dense, and burns cleaner compared to coal
195
What can be removed when processing oil?
sulfur and other impurities
196
How do low-sulfur oils compare with regular oils?
they are more expensive to produce, thus making them expensive to purchase
197
Why does natural gas lie above oil in the rock strata?
because it is less dense than oil
198
What is the result of natural gas having very few impurities?
it produces virtually no SO2 and particulates
199
Why does natural gas produce virtually no SO2 and particulates?
it has very few impurities
200
How much more efficient is methane at trapping heat than CO2?
25x more efficient
201
What percent of natural gas is methane?
80% to 95%
202
What is a major source of methane pollution with natural gas?
the burning and leaking of the fuel
203
Petroleum produces ___% as much CO2 emissions compared to coal when burning.
85
204
Natural gas produces ___% as much CO2 equivalent emissions compared to coal when burning.
0.6
205
What is another name for hydraulic fracturing?
fracking
206
What is fracking?
injecting high-pressure solutions of water, sand, and chemicals into bedrock to create fractures in the rock and extract oil and gas
207
What has allowed us to reach previously unreachable reservoirs of oil and gas?
fracking, paired with horizontal drilling
208
What has been the major reason that natural gas has overtaken coal as the second most used energy source?
fracking
209
What is the second most used energy source?
natural gas
210
What are the main concerns with fracking?
it hurts the environment and human health
211
What do the chemicals used in fracking contain?
methanol, ehthylene glocol, and propargyl alcohol
212
How are the chemicals used in fracking to the human health?
hazardous
213
What resource in particular does fracking use a lot of?
water
214
How many gallons of water has fracking used up since 2011?
1.5 trillion gallons
215
How many gallons of water can a single fracking well use?
40 million gallons
216
Where does much large-scale fracking take place?
Texas, where droughts are common
217
What is the downside to nuclear power?
it produces radioactive waste
218
What is the fuel for nuclear power?
uranium
219
What are some rocks that may contain uranium?
shale and sandstone
220
How many pounds of uranium must be extracted to produce 7 pounds of uranium oxide?
2000
221
How many pounds of uranium oxide will 2,000 pounds of uranium produce?
7
222
After uranium is removed from the rock and concentrated, what is the remaining material called?
slag piles
223
What are 2 locations where commercial operations mine uranium?
Western US and some Canada
224
What happens after the extraction of uranium?
the ore is enriched
225
What is the enrichment of uranium ore?
a process that removes all impurities so that it might contain 2% to 3% uranium oxide
226
After the enrichment of uranium ore, what percent of it might contain uranium oxide?
2% to 3%
227
What happens after uranium is enriched?
it is processed into pellets
228
What are pellets of uranium put into?
hollow fuel rods
229
Approximately how tall are uranium fuel rods?
6 feet high
230
How many fuel rods may a typical nuclear reactor contain?
75 to 100
231
What process does a pellet of uranium oxide undergo?
radioactive decay
232
What is radioactive decay?
the process of splitting atoms into more atoms
233
What is a fission reaction?
when an atom splits and gives off heat
234
What happens when an atom splits?
a fission reaction occurs, and a small amount of heat is given off
235
What is the heat given off from fission reactions in nuclear reactors used for?
used to heat water, which becomes steamm and turns a turbine
236
What is the most concentrated of all the energy sources discussed in the USAP Science Resource Guide?
uranium
237
A pound of enriched uranium is smaller than what common object?
a baseball
238
A million gallons of gasoline has the energy content of about how many pounds of enriched uranium?
1 pound
239
How much enriched uranium has the same energy as 260,000 tons of coal?
10 tons
240
A pound of enriched uranium is equal to about how many gallons of gasoline?
1,000,000 (1 million) gallons of gasoline
241
10 tons of enriched uranium is equal to about how much coal?
260,000 tons of coal
242
There is _________ times more energy in uranium than in coal.
26000
243
Do nuclear power plants produce air pollution when operating?
No, so it is considered clean energy
244
When during nuclear power plant generation are fossil fuels used?
when the plant is constructed, when the uranium is mined and processed, when the fuels are transported, and when the plant is decommissioned
245
What is the lifespan of a nuclear power plant?
50 years
246
Why do nuclear power plants have to be decommissioned after around 50 years?
because the level of radioactivity in the plant becomes too high
247
How many grams of CO2 are generated per kilowatt-hour of electricity for a nuclear power plant?
60 grams
248
How many grams of CO2 are generated per kilowatt-hour of electricity for a coal power plant?
800 to 1,100 grams
249
How many accidents have contributed to protests against nuclear power in the US?
3
250
What 3 accidents have contributed to protests against nuclear power in the US?
Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania, Chernobyl in Ukraine, and Fukushima in Japan
251
When was the Three Mile Island accident?
March 28, 1979
252
Where was the Three Mile Island plant?
Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania
253
What caused the Three Mile Island accident?
human error, when a cooling water valve wasn't closed
254
During the Three Mile Island accident, what happened as a result of a cooling water valve not being closed?
there was a loss of coolant in the nuclear core, leading to overheating and radiation being released
255
What movie was released around the time of the Three Mile Island accident that made it worse?
The China Syndrome
256
What happened in "The China Syndrome"?
a nuclear plant suffered a major meltdown
257
The release of "The China Syndrome" and the Three Mile Island accident led to what?
widespread fear and anger over the safety of nuclear power plants
258
How did the Three Mile Island accident compare to the Chernobyl accident?
the Chernobyl accident was worse and more serious
259
When was the Chernobyl accident?
April 26, 1986
260
Where was the Chernobyl accident?
Chernobyl, Ukraine
261
What caused the Chernobyl accident?
an explosion and fire exposed the core of one of the reactors
262
How many people died immediately of acute radiation exposure in the Chernobyl accident?
31
263
During the Chernobyl accident, 31 people died immediately from what?
acute radiation exposure
264
The Chernobyl accident has been characterized as what type of incident?
a runaway reactor incident
265
What caused the fires and explosions at the Chernobyl accident?
operators disconnected emergency cooling systems and removed control rods, despite being in violation of safety regulations
266
What happened during the Chernobyl accident when operators disconnected emergency cooling systems and removed control rods?
the nuclear explosions went out of control and the plant overheated, causing fires to burn
267
What made the fires in the Chernobyl accident worse?
the flammable graphite control rods, which burn worse than water control rods
268
When did the Fukushima accident occur?
March 2011
269
What caused the Fukushima accident?
an earthquake which resulted in a tsunami flooded the plant, causing radioactive leakage
270
Where did the tsunami that caused the Fukushima accident occur?
the island of Honshu
271
How many people died due to the tsunami which caused the Fukushima accident?
18000
272
How many people were forced to evacuate due to the Fukushima accident?
150000
273
How many years will the Fukushima plant need to finish decontamination work?
40 years
274
What is a nuclear fuel rod considered after it is depleted and doesn't have enough energy to produce heat?
it is considered spent
275
What is a spent nuclear fuel rod?
a fuel rod that does not have enough energy left to produce adequate heat to generate electricity
276
For how long do spent nuclear fuel rods remain a threat to humans and other organisms?
tens of thousands of years
277
As of now, where are nuclear power plants required to store spent fuel rods?
at the plant it itself
278
How deep are the pools of water in nuclear power plants that store spent fuel rods?
20 feet deep
279
What do the pools of water in nuclear power plants that store spent fuel rods do?
they act as a shielf from radiation
280
What happens after fuel rods are spent?
the rods are moved to cement storage canisters, called dry cask storage
281
What is dry cask storage?
storing spent fuel rods into cement storage canisters
282
How many spent fuel rods can each cement storage container fit?
2 to 6 dozen
283
What does USDE stand for?
US Department of Energy
284
What did the USDE start examining in 1978?
the Yucca Mountain site
285
When did the USDE start examining Yucca Mountain?
1978
286
Where is Yucca Mountain?
about 100 miles Northwest of Las Vegas
287
What did the USDE want Yucca Mountain for?
they wanted to use it as a repository for nuclear waste
288
Which group of people in particular protested against the use of Yucca Mountain?
Nevadans and the Western Shoshone people
289
Why did the Western Shoshone people protest against the Yucca Mountain site?
because that land was sacred to them
290
What contributed to the Yucca Mountain site not being built?
protests from local people and uncertainty from the scientific community
291
Why were many scientists unsure about the use of Yucca Mountain?
they were skeptical about whether the site was geologically stable enough to house nuclear waste for thousands of years
292
As of 2023, how are the plans for Yucca Mountain?
they are basically ended
293
Is the use of fossil fuels sustainable?
No
294
What is the use of sustainable energy based on?
the use of renewable energy
295
The sun and wind are what types of energy sources?
renewable energy sources
296
Are biofuels renewable?
They are potentially renewable
297
How are biofuels potentially renewable?
they are only renewable if their use is balanced by new growth
298
How can the sustainability of energy use be improved?
by using les energy through improving energy efficiency and conservation
299
Where is almost all energy on Earth derived from?
the Sun
300
The Sun is responsible for evaporating water, which is an essential aspect of what cycle?
the hydrologic cycle
301
What type of solar energy are wind and hydro?
indirect solar energy
302
What are examples of direct and indirect energy sources?
fossil fuels, solar, wind, hydro, and biomass
303
What are the significant sources of energy that are not solar-based?
nuclear, geothermal, and tidal
304
Every day, the Earth is bathed with what type of energy?
solara energy
305
What is the amount of solar energy that reaches the atmosphere called?
the solar constant
306
What is the solar constant? (watts)
1,370 watts per square meter
307
Is all the energy in the solar constant available for our use?
No, some of it is reflected and absorbed by the atmosphere
308
How many watts of solar energy arrive at the equator?
usually 200 watts, but can vary from 50 to 300 watts
309
What is the solar energy that is potentially available for use known as?
the solar potential
310
Where is the Andasol solar power station?
Spain
311
What is the solar input at night?
0
312
What region of the US has the greatest solar potential?
the Southwest
313
In the Southwest, US, solar energy is available what percent of the time?
0.9
314
What is the collection of solar energy directly from the rays of the Sun without an intermediate technology?
passive solar energy
315
For how long has passive solar energy been harnessed?
thousands of years
316
What is passive solar energy been used for?
heating homes and cooking
317
In the Northern Hemisphere, why do many people construct houses with windows facing South?
because it allows the Sun's rays to penetrate the house better
318
What is thermal inertia?
material that once heated, stays hot or vice versa
319
Do stone and concrete have thermal inertia?
Yes
320
Do wood and glass have thermal inertia?
No
321
What is passive solar energy?
the collection of solar energy directly from the Sun's rays without an intermediate technology, like a pump or blower
322
What are active solar systems?
systems that utilize energy from the Sun with the assistance of fans, blowers, pumps, etc
323
What is active solar energy primarily used for?
heating water and generating electricity
324
What is used to convert energy from the Sun directly to electricity?
a photovoltaic solar cell
325
What material in the photovoltaic solar cell generates the electricity?
silicon dioxide
326
Why is silicon dioxide used in a photovoltaic solar cell?
because it generates an electrical current when exposed to solar energy
327
What are usually the components of a photovoltaic solar cell?
glass, silicon dioxide, and a metal such as arsenic or antimony
328
How many watts of energy will a single photovoltaic solar cell generate?
1 or 2 watts
329
Why are metals used in photovoltaic solar cells?
to increase the voltage output
330
How many photovoltaic solar cells are typically joined together?
24 or more
331
Where are photovoltaic solar cells often mounted?
on rooftoops of buildinga
332
What is a wind turbine?
a device that converts the kinetic energy of wind to the potential energy of electricity
333
What energies does a wind turbine convert?
kinetic energy (wind) to potential energy (electricity)
334
How tall is a contemporary wind turbine?
around 100 meters
335
How long are the blades of a contemporary wind turbine?
40 to 75 meters long
336
How much electricity will an average wind turbine generate per month?
843,000 kWh
337
An average wind turbine will generate enough electricity to power _____ average US homes.
940
338
What are the most rapidly growing sites for wind-generated electricity?
offshore wind park
339
How many offshore wind farms are in Northern Europe?
over 40
340
How many offshore wind farms in the US?
2
341
What state is Palm Springs in?
California
342
What forms of energy can provide electricity in remote locations without transmission lines?
wind and solar
343
Do wind and solar produce air or water pollution when the energy is being produced?
No
344
What is the main disadvantage to wind and solar?
the Sun doesn't shine all the time, and the wind doesn't blow all the time
345
Because conditions for wind and solar are not always ideal, what is needed?
a method of storage
346
What does the storage of electricity often require?
large-scale battery production
347
What material do batteries use?
lithium, cobal, and other minerals
348
What is the aesthetic disadvantage of wind turbines?
many people do not like living in a place where they can see or hear the turbines
349
What is an environmental disadvantage to wind?
the amount of bird and bat deaths
350
How many birds die each year in collisions with wind turbines in the US?
10,000 to 40,000
351
How is the issue of bird deaths caused by wind turbines being addressed?
many turbines are now being moved and designed to be away from migration paths
352
What environmental objections have occurred regarding the use of turbines off the New England coast?
they can harm migratory and endangered whales
353
What is hydroelectric power more commonly known as?
hydropower
354
What is hydropower?
the use of water to generate electricity
355
What are the 2 most widely used renewable energy sources in the US?
biomass and hydropower
356
What percent of renewable energy in the US is accounted for by hydropower?
0.287
357
What percent of total electricity in the US is generated by hydropower?
0.062
358
In hydropower, what is the kinetic energy of flowing water used for?
used to spin a turbine
359
The amount of electricity generated with hydropower depends on what?
the vertical distance of the water falling and the flow rate
360
What is a flow rate of water?
the amount of water that flows past a certain point per unit of time
361
What are the 2 main types of hydropower?
run of the river and water impoundment
362
What happens in run of the river hydro generation?
water is diverted from a river to a channel, where it spins through a turbine and returned to the river
363
Are run of the river hydro plants large or small scale?
small scale
364
How many MW of electricity does a run of the river plant generate at peak capacity?
1 MW
365
A megawatt is enough to power how many homes?
1,000 homes
366
How many homes can a run of the river plant provide electricity to at peak capacity?
about 1,000 homes
367
What is run of the river hydro generation dependent on?
the natural flow of the river
368
When is run of the river hydro generation the lowest?
during the summer months
369
How do run of the river plants compare with water impoundment on environmental impacts?
they are much lower
370
What are used to help fish swim upstream when a hydro dam is present?
fish ladders
371
What are fish ladders?
a series of pools and pipes designed like steps to allow fish to travel upstream
372
What are the downsides to fish ladders?
some fish find it hard to use and predators sometimes know to stay there to find prey
373
How does water impoundment compare with run of the river in reliability?
water impoundment is more reliable
374
What is water impoundment?
storing water in a reservoir behind a dam, and releasing it when needed
375
Why is water impoundment more common than run of the river?
because it allows for electricity generation on demand
376
Where are the Hydro Quebec dams?
near James Bay, Canada
377
What form of hydro generation are the Hydro Quebec dams?
water impoundment
378
How many MWs can the Hydro Quebec dams near James Bay, Canada produce at peak?
7,300 MW
379
Hydro dams can create conditions for mercury to be converted to what?
methyl mercury
380
Where does methyl mercury concentrate and accumulate?
in the fatty tissue of fish and humans
381
What is biomass energy?
the energy in organic matter
382
Where was biomass energy originally derived?
the Sun
383
Wood, animal dung, plant remains, and ethanol are what type of energy?
biomass energy
384
What does MSW stand for?
municipal solid waste
385
Biomass products account for what percent of all renewable energy in the US?
0.37
386
Where is MSW burned?
in waste-to-energy facilities
387
What is ethanol mostly made from?
corn
388
What percent of biomass energy comes from MSW?
0.25
389
Agricultural wastes and methane from landfills make up what percent of biomass energy?
0.05
390
In developing countries, what is typically the most common biomass energy?
animal dung
391
What is the carbon in biomass energy considered to be?
modern carbon
392
Why is fossil carbon worse than modern carbon?
because it adds to the amount of carbon in the atmosphere
393
Why do some forests remove very little carbon?
because their productivity is not much greater than their respiration
394
What is the most common biofuel?
ethanol
395
What is ethanol made by?
the fermentation, or decomposition, of sugars and starches that results in the production of alcohol
396
How many gallons of ethanol are made and used in the US each year?
1.8 billion gallons
397
What percent of ethanol is derived from corn and corn by-products?
0.92
398
What is ethanol most commonly mixed with?
gasoline
399
At what ratio is ethanol typically mixed with gasoline?
1:10, or 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline
400
Why is ethanol used in gasoline?
it boosts its octane, helps oxygenate it, prevents freezing, and reduces the amount of gasoline used
401
How much less efficient is a 1:10 ethanol blend compared to pure gasoline?
2% to 3% less efficient
402
What is the heat produced from the radioactive decay of elements deep in the Earth?
geothermal energy
403
Geothermal energy will not deplete as long as what?
there is an Earth
404
Is geothermal expensive to tap?
No
405
What can geothermal energy be used to do?
heat water or generate electricity using steam to spin turbines
406
What are the downsides to geothermal energy?
it can emit localized dangerous gases and is geographically limited to areas that are active
407
What is Iceland known for?
its active volcanoes
408
Iceland gets what percent of its energy from renewable resources?
1
409
What percent of Iceland's electricity is generated from hydro?
0.73
410
What percent of Iceland's electricity is generated from geothermal?
0.27
411
What is geothermal energy?
the heat produced from the radioactive decay of elements deep in the Earth
412
Where are tidal generation plants operating?
Maine, Washington, Brittany in France, and Nova Scotia in Canada
413
Is tidal energy a major energy source?
No
414
What is the primary reason tidal energy is not a main energy source?
because the difference in water level between high and low tides is not sufficient
415
In order to harness tidal energy, what must be built?
power stations, like an estuary, must be directly on the coastline
416
What effect does an estuary have on the ecology of organisms?
it as a disruptive effect on the local organisms
417
What is the main reason nearby residents of tidal generation stations oppose it?
because of the aesthetic deterioration, as it doesn't look good
418
What is energy efficiency?
how effective we are at getting usable work from an input of energy
419
What energy source is 100% efficient?
None
420
What energy is usually lost at each conversion?
heat energy
421
The more steps there are in the process of turning energy to work, the more opportunities for what?
a loss of energy, making the system more inefficient
422
What percent efficiency do most older, conventional electricity generating plants have?
0.36
423
What percent efficiency do newer coal-burning power plants have?
up to 42%
424
Are efficiencies of over 50% possible for coal-fired plants?
Yes, but they are not feasible as of now
425
Natural gas-fired power plants can reach efficiencies of how much?
0.6
426
What is global energy efficiency?
roughly 37%
427
What are the goals for energy use in a sustainable society?
reducing costs and pollutants while increasing efficiency
428
What percent of our energy came from renewables in 2022?
0.215
429
What percent of our energy came from nuclear in 2022?
0.182
430
What percent of our energy came from coal in 2022?
0.195
431
What percent of our energy came from natural gas in 2022?
0.39799999999999996
432
What percent of our energy came from wind in 2022?
0.102
433
What percent of our energy came from hydro in 2022?
0.062
434
What percent of our energy came from solar in 2022?
0.034
435
What percent of our energy came from biomass in 2022?
0.013000000000000001
436
What percent of our energy came from geothermal in 2022?
0.004
437
What percent of our energy came from petroleum in 2022?
0.009000000000000001
438
What are necessary aspects of energy sustainability?
conservation and increased efficiency
439
What is conservation?
a consumer-based approach that focuses on reducing energy use by changing users' habits and actions
440
What are some examples of conservation measures?
turning off lights when not needed, driving less, taking a shorter shower, etc
441
What is the only drawback to conservation?
having to change habits
442
What is increasing energy efficiency?
using less energy to do the same work
443
Will a 1 ton car or 2 ton car use more energy to get from one place to another?
a 2 ton car because it needs more force to move
444
A smaller, lighter car will consume more/less gasoline in the process and therefore increase/decrease energy efficiency. (choose from the slashes)
less, increase
445
What is peak demand?
the greatest quantity of electricity that will be needed at any time
446
What do utilities do in order to meet peak demand?
they build more power plants or offer lower rates to customers during off-peak hours
447
How is electricity usage monitored?
by having 1 meters at each place, one recording peak and the other recording non-peak demand
448
When is peak demand usually?
8 AM to 8 PM
449
Is electricity during peak demand more expensive or cheaper?
more expensive
450
What organization regulates the Energy Star Program?
the EPA, Environmental Protection Agency
451
How can an appliance get an energy star?
if it completes its work with a certain level of efficiency
452
Would an air conditioner that removes 10,000 Btus of heat per hour while using less than 1,000 watts receive an Energy Star?
Yes
453
Would an air conditioner that removes 10,000 Btus of heat per hour while using 1,200 watts receive an Energy Star?
No
454
How much might 200 watts for an hour cost?
2 cents
455
What percent of a typical power plant's output is 20 MW?
0.04
456
What is 4% of a typical power plant's output?
20 MW
457
What does IPCC stand for?
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
458
What organizations established the IPCC?
the UNEP and WMO
459
When was the IPCC established?
1988
460
What is change that occurs in the chemistry, biology, and physical properties of worldwide systems referred to as?
global change
461
Over the last 800,000 years, what has the concentration of CO2 ranged from?
180 to 280 ppm
462
Over how many years has the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere ranged from 180 to 280 ppm?
800,000 years
463
What is global change
change that occurs in the chemistry, biology, and physical properties of worldwide systems
464
What is climate change?
variation in the average weather
465
What is global warming?
rising temperatures on the Earth's surface relative to pre-industrial temps
466
What does global change include, besides climate change and global warming?
other environmental changes done by humans, like large-scale deforestation
467
If you are in a car with the closed, the temperature outside may be 10C (50F), but how hot can it get inside the car?
30C, or 86F
468
What causes the inside of the car when the windows are rolled down to get warmer?
the greenhouse
469
Do the windows of a car allow much solar energy to enter?
Yes
470
Do the windows of a car allow much energy to escape?
No
471
In Earth's heating system, what is the main energy input?
solar radiation
472
In Earth's heating system, what are the main energy outputs?
reflection of solar energy and infrared radiation of Earth
473
What can cause the inputs of Earth's heating systems to be greater than the outputs?
an increase in solar radiation or a decrease in outgoing reflected solar radiation
474
The hospitable temperatures on Earth are a result of what?
greenhouse gases
475
What is the most common GHG?
water vapor
476
What would Earth's temperature be without GHGs?
-18C or 0 F
477
What is the greatest difficulty in determining if global warming is occurring?
estannlishing a temperature change that has occurred
478
Earth surface and ocean temperatures have been measured directly since when?
1880
479
There is a high degree of confidence in one global temperature data set maintained by who and where?
John Hansen at the NASA Institute for Space Studies in NYC
480
How often is Hansen's graph updated?
monthly, and is posted on NASA's website
481
How is the increase in temperatures between 1880 and 2020 according to Hansen's graph?
steady
482
Global temperatures are higher than at any time in how many years?
the last 150,000 years
483
In tree rings, what do wider rings correspond with?
better temperatures for growth, usually meaning warmer and wetter conditions
484
What is our knowledge about the warming of Earth and its past temperatures primarily based on?
surrogate indicators
485
Marine corals add what each year?
calcium carbonate bands
486
Corals can record temperatures for how many years?
tens and sometimes hundreds of years
487
Trees can provide records of temperature for how many years?
decades and centuries, sometimes for more than a thousand years
488
Atmospheric CO2 has increased by how much since 1750?
0.5
489
How much has the global average temperature increased since 1880? (Fahranheit)
2F
490
Snow cover has decreased by how much since the 1960s?
0.1
491
The growing season has lengthened by how much since the 1960s in the Northern Hemisphere?
1-4 days for each decade since
492
What is a good phrase that describes the effects we are facing regarding climate change as of now?
The tip of the iceberg
493
Global mean sea level, in part as a result of melting glaciers, is expected to rise by how much by 2100?
0.1 to 0.9 meters
494
Global mean sea level is expected to rise by 0.1 to 0.9 meters by when?
2100
495
What is the Paris Agreement?
a policy that provides a framework for what every country can do to reduce GHG emissions
496
When was the Paris Agreement created/signed?
2015
497
How will global warming affect plant species in the Northern Hemisphere?
it will cause them to move upward, sometimes in altitude
498
As sea levels rise, coastal and island communities will be threatened by what?
inundation, contamination of drinking water, erosion of coastal areas, and flooding
499
Where have nations already been threatened with flooding from rising sea levels?
the South Pacific
