SECTION 2 Flashcards
1
Q
prokaryotic organisms are prokaryotic cells meaning they are _____- celled
A
single-celled
2
Q
animal structure diagram.
A
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EWfHkqKeR5tJlJoVoNv5h5QBUFTHnCUKQyVCNGRMaVxHQA?e=4DFKI5
3
Q
animal cell vs plant cell
A
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/ERlqR5QADdxOs4x2U929pgEBb852yvvp0IhUEQ_ISBUadw?e=jy3pjs
4
Q
algal cells similairtiy with plants cells and whether they can be unicellular or multicellular
A
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EV2EyfDgjkJKsnMDO9v0qDYBTy5TaxGM0tOKbp9ean2jkw?e=SBrWwn
5
Q
where is the cell surface (plasma) membrane found?
A
on the surface of animals cells and just inside the wall of other cells
6
Q
cell surface (plasma) membrane is made up of what?
A
lipids and proteins.
7
Q
function of cell-surface membrane
A
regulates the movement mof substances into and out of the cell.
also has receptor molecules on it, which allows it to respond to molecules such as hormones.
8
Q
NUCLEUS descritption
A
A LARGE ORGANELLE THAT IS SURROUNDED BY A NUCLEAR ENVELOPE (DOUBLE MEMBRANE) AND CONTAINS MANY PORES.
NUCLEUS CONTAINS CHROMOSOMES (MADE FROM PROTEIN-BOUN, LINEAR DNA) and one or more structures called a nucleolus.
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9
Q
nucleus function
A
control the cells activities by controlling the transciption of DNA.
DNA contains instructions to make proteins
nuclear pores allow substances such as RNA to move between the nucleus and the cyotplsam.
nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis.
10
Q
mitochondria description
A
usually oval-shaped
have a double membrane —-> inner one folded to form cristae.
inside of the mitochondria, there is a matrix which contains enzymes involved in aerobic respiration.
11
Q
mitochondria function?
A
site of aerboic respiration, where ATP is synthesised.
they’re foundin large numbers in cells that are very active and require lots of enerygy (eg, muscle cells)
12
Q
chloroplast description
A
a small, flattened structure found in plant and algal cells
surrounded by a double membrane and also have e=membranes inside called thylakoid membranes. these membranes are stacked up in some parts of the chloroplast to form grana.
grana are linked by lamellae which are thin, flat pieces of thylakoid membrane.
13
Q
chloroplast function
A
site where photosynthesis takes place.
some parts of photosynthesis happen in the grana, and others happen in the stroma, which is a thick fluid in chloroplasts.
14
Q
golgi apparatus description
A
a group of fluid-filled, membrane-bound flattened sacs.
vescicles are often seen at the edges of the sacs.
15
Q
golgi apparatus function
A
processes and packages new lipids and proteins.
also make lysosomes
16
Q
GOLGI VESICLE DESCRIPTION
A
A SMALL, FLUID-FILLED SAC FOUND IN THE CYTOPLASM THAT IS SURROUNDED BY A MEMBRANE AND IS PRODUCED BY THE GOLGI APPARATUS.
17
Q
golgi vesicle function
A
store lipids and proteins produced by the golgi apparatus and transport them out of the cell via the cell surface membrane. this is known as exocytosis.
18
Q
lysosome description
A
a round organelle surrounded by a membrane with no clear interal structure.
its a type of golgi vesicle
19
Q
function of lysosomes
A
contain hydrolytic enzymes (eg, lysozymes) which are kept separate from the cytoplas, by the surrounding membrane and can be used to hydrolyse invading cells or worn-out components of the cell.
20
Q
DESCRIPTION OF RIBOSOMES
A
A VERY SMALL ORGANELLE THAT EITHER FLOATS FREE IN THE CYTOPLASM OR IS ATTACHED TO THE ROUGH ER.
MADE OF PROTEINS AND RNA
not surrounded by a membrane.
21
Q
function of ribosomes
A
site of protein synthesis.
22
Q
rough ER description
A
a system of membranes enclosing a fluid-filled space.
consistent with the nuclear envelope
surface is covered with ribosomes.
23
Q
rough ER function
A
processes and packages proteins made at the ribosomes.
24
Q
Smooth ER desc
A
similar stucture to that of rough ER, but has no ribosomes.
25
function of smooth ER
synthesises and processes proteins and lipids.
26
cell wall desc
a rigid structure that surrounds cells in plant, algae and fungi.
in plants and algae, the cell wall is made of cellulose.
in fungi its made of chitin.
27
cell function
supports the cell and prevents it from changing shape
28
cell vacuole desc
vacuole is a membraned-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of plant cells.
it contains the cell sap (Which is a weak solution of sugar and salts)
the surrounding membrane is called the tonoplast.
29
function of vacuole
it helps maintain the pressure inside the cell and keeps thecell rigid.this stops plants from wilting.
its also involved in the isolation of unwanted chemicals inside the cell
30
all cells within an organism are produced by what? resulting in them containing the same what?
mitotic divisions from the fertilised egg, hence they all contain the same genes
31
all cells within an organism are produced by mitotic divisions from ther fertilised egg. therefore they all contain the same genes. however only some of the genes in a cell are expressed, leading to what?
hence the shape of the cell may vary
and the number of different organelles varies.
32
epithelial cell in the small intestine is an eg of a specialsed cell. how
it folds in the cell-surface membrane (Microvilli), increasing the membrane SA, hence increasing the rate of diffusion of glucose and amino acids.
contain losts of mitochondria to provide energy for active transport.
33
sperm cell is an eg of a specialised cell. how?
requires lots of energy to the egg, hence has lots of mitochrondria.
the head contains hydrolytic enzymes to break into the egg.
long tail to swim to the egg.
34
what is a tissue
a group of specialised cells working together to perform a particular role. eg, xylem
35
whats a organ
a group of tissues working together to carry out a particular role. eg, heart,lungs, roots and leaves.
36
whats a organ system
a group of organs working together to carry out a particular function. eg, digestive, respiratory and reproductive systems.
37
in complex multi cellular organisms, eukaryotic cells become specialised for what
specifc functions
38
structure of prokaryotic cells
in prokaryotic cells:
the cytoplasm has no membrane bound organelles.
ribosomes are much smaller than in eukaryotic cells - 70s only (compared to 80s in eukaryotic)
prokaryotic cells contain no nuclei but instead have a single circular DNA molecule that is free in the cytoplasm and is not assosciated with proteins (histones)
prokaryotes have a cell cell which supportsthe cell and prvents it from changing shape. in prokaryotes its made of murein, which is a glycoprotein as opposed to in eukaryotes (like plants and algal cells) which its cell wall is made from cellulose, and fungis cell wall which is made of chitin.
39
organelles of: slime capsule, plasmid, and flagella are found in some prokaryotes, but not all. the ones found in all prokaryotes, are ribosome, plasma membrane, cell wall, genetic material (dna), cytoplasm. for the organelles found in some and not all describe them and what they do.
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/ESsqX0D1E3lOkysJgV-iBtoB01b7TSlWpEA9NgD35FMcuA?e=ChdJDX
40
prokaryotes ve eukaryotes
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/ETDrCjEyFxVMpY7NJDDOwlsB6XYIYjKoQhQ2fWlVuI2Zwg?e=HwVZzh
41
viruses are acellular and non living and much smaller than bacteria. give the structure of viruses.
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EVgK599OTJlDk-vZ0Otdqv8BGYAxsRyS5r5AxXr5mmBYzg?e=7TT981
42
in order for viruses to replicate they must be inside what cell?
a host cell.
43
how do viruses replicate inside host cells
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EXvTw51tSjJIpzPbLTsdLiIBGiswyLKFHuluNAAFWYRraQ?e=txq71h
44
why dont viruses undergo cell division.
cuz they are non living.
45
light microscopes vs electron miscroscopes.
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EfaDnpCjA6RLgvZkBd2krKcB63BKbSsMp9gUPVDL6uIWOg?e=q4GDNc
the lower magnification and resolving power in light microscopes, means it cannot see ribosomes, lysosomes and endoplasmic reticulum
46
TEMs vs SEMs (transmission electron microscope vs scanning electron microscope)
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EWjRtiGnDXRGuGKYbxRDI7QBvEFDtO4J8ncpxwP7VwhaxA?e=X81erG
47
MAGNIFICATION FORM
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EZLU92Gx-aFLmzNgCcN5GwcB4M0smPSBh94aATQpV-nsLA?e=BvbLEV
48
DEFINE RESOLUTION and defien magnificaton
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49
cell fractionation
the process by which cells are broken up and their organelles are separated out
50
WHOLE PROCESS OF cell fractionation (Give the 3 stages)
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EQnIJiPBUG1EivxrDMk6SKoBNTtFeP0Wj8MA0bd4XvZ5zA?e=RwDtaB
51
the solution in which organelles are separated into in stage 1 of cell fractionation must have 3 conditions. what are they? and state why they must be that.
the solution must be cold, to reduce enzyme activity which may hydrolyse organelles,
the solution must be isotonic, meaning the water potential of the solution is = to the water potential of the cell, this is to prevent bursting, or shrinking of organelles due to osmosis.
the solution must have a buffer to main ph, as a fluctuating ph could damage organelles or affect the functionign enzymes.
52
what are the 2 types of cell division in eukaryotes
Mitosis and Meiosis
53
mitosis (what is is etc)
process in which parent cell divides to form two genetically identical daughter cells. these 2 daugher cells each have identical copies of DNA produced by parent cell during DNA replication.
54
why is mitosis needed
for growth
for repair of damaged tissue
55
what are the 4 stages of mitosis
1) prophase
2) metaphase
3) Anaphase
4) Telephase
56
explain what opccurs in each stage of mitosis.
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EWBz06fXPkpOhSORPAnBQ4cBlEybJUbNnLjj1wzhCvHFVA?e=ZYyfd5
57
chromosome is made up of.... (in a dipoid cell)
2 sister chromatids joined together by a centromere
58
interphase is a period of ....
cell growth and DNA replication
59
cell spends most of its time in which phase? ( in the cell cycle)
interphase
60
interphase occurs before....
mitosis
61
interphase is subdivided into 3 stages. give the name of these stages and state what happens in each of em'
G1 (gap phase 1 ) - cell grows and increases in volume as new cytoplasm and organelles are made.
S (synthesis) : cell replicates its DNA
G2 (gap phase 2) : cell continues to grow. cell synthesises enzymes and structures needed for mitosis.
62
after interphase what occurs
mitosis, then cytokinesis
63
HOW DO U CALCULATE THE TIME TAKEN FOR EACH STAGE IN MITOSIS
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EXxVqaDmKWRHqdXXj2NWcosBJI1UljRRQztn7Afhosw9Jg?e=sXQVC6
64
what does the mitotic index show?
the proportion of cells undergoing mitosis in a piece of tissue
65
how do u calc the mitotic index (MI):
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EZnws01FZ21LjVfzwHV7eZcBENp0H9O5ZyFX8NrAC1Rflw?e=wm4pdp
66
in practice, the number of cells undergoing mitosis is taken to be the number of cells that have what?
visible chromosomes ( so in exams any time u see a cell with a visible chromosome that cell is undergoing mitosis)
67
why is calculating the MI useful
for determining when a tissue is becoming cancerous and for assessing the effectiveness of another cancer treatment.
68
mitosis is a controlled process controlled by what?
genes
69
how does cancer arise?
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/Eefi04miXrRIslF8v5o7qvQBPWSTMw_l3bph5pMP85pxPw?e=QHS9k6
70
2 types of tumour and what do they do each
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EU-32EpI1nlEtHZjy9h6rRwBVG3iQcYqSu76GzQGa3Q44g?e=AN2eXS
71
how do cancer treatments work?
by disupting the cell cycle, which kills tumour cells. but treatments dont distinguish normal cells from tumour cells, hence normal cells are affected too. but tumour cells divide more frequently so treatments are more likely to kill tumour cells
72
3 types of cancer treatment + explain how they work and give en eg of chemotherapy.
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73
whats the cell division in prokaryotic cells
binary fission
74
what generally happens in binary fission?
the cell replicates its genetic material before splitting into 2 genetically identical daughter cells.
75
explain the process of binary fission
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EYy9DHyuyO1HvVFFA5h-ayoB66NnvwNbwwkg3e1IuRWPlA?e=PswMUH
76
all cells are surrouned by .....
membranes
77
membranes act as a barrier between the cell and its environements, or a barrier between the organelle and the cytoplasm of the cell in what?
eukaryotes.
78
THE structure of all cell membranes is the same. they are made up of what?
lipids, proteins and carbs (which are attached to the porteins or lipids)
79
in fluid mosaic model, why is the bilayer called 'fluid' and called 'mosaic'
the bilayer is called 'fluid' cuz phospholipids are constantly moving. its called 'mosaic' cuz the proteins are dispersed throughout the layer.
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EXoGZme_r5ROrQxipFEaqDwBxyKLrLL2nL3469tSGcZk2Q?e=n7j8S0
80
intrinsic proteins are proteins found in the inside of the phospholipid bilayer/membrane (they span the 2 sides of the membane). there are 2 types of em' give em'
channel proteins which form water-filled tubes which allow water-soluble molecules to pass through
carrier proteins which bind to molecules or ions and change the shape the move them across.
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81
extrinsic proteins. where are they found and what do they do?
found on the outside of the phospholipid bilayer.
they provide mechanical support for the membrane
act as cell receprors for molecules like hormones
act as receptors to identify other cells.
82
what are glycoproteins and what do they do
they are proteins with carbs attached.
they act as receptors for molecules (eg, hormones and neurotransmitters)
they allow cells to attach to one another and form tissues (CELL ADHESION)
they allow cells to recognise one another (EG, lymphoctyes can recognise your own cells)
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83
what are glycolipids and what do they do
lipids with carbs attached
they act as recognition sites
help stability of membrane
important in cell adhesion
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84
what is cholesterol and what do they do?
its a type of lipid present in all cell membranes (except that of bacteria ---> so a chloroplast or mitochondria membrane couldnt have it)
what they do:
cholesterol restricts the movement of other molecules in the membrane, hence the membrane is less fluid, and more rigid.
they fit between phospholipids and bind to their fatty acid tails, causing them to pack more closely together ,this helps maintain shape of animal cells which is very important for cells which arent supported by other cells (eg, red blod cells), overall providing MEMBRANE STABILITY
they are very hydrophobic hence prevent loss of water and dissolved ions from cell.
85
DIFFUSION IS A PASSIVE PROCESS MEANING WHAT?
NO EXTERNAL ENERGY INPPUT IS REQUIRED
86
SO THEN WHAT DOES DIFFUSION RELY ON?
THE KE OF PARTICLES
87
WHATS SIMPLE DIFFSUION AND GIVE EG OF MOLECULESS THAT UNDERGO IT
WHEN MOLECULESS CAN DIFFUSE DIRECTLY THROUGH A MEMBRANE.
eg,s: o2, co2 ---> these can as they are small, so can pass through between phospholipids
and are also non-polar hence are lipid soluble, so can dissolve in the hydrophobic bilayer
88
facilitated diffusion.
diffusion of large molecules (eg, glucose, amino acids() and charged particles (eg, ions and polar molecules) across the phospholipid bilayer via carrier or channel proteins. (they are facilitated by them)
89
how do carrier and channel proteins work?
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EeMcvx97bNxHn_bdFJu-m_YB-fqAnhbfOFnrpZBRRkT2rw?e=Tee5dH
90
give the factors affect diffusion?
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EZRpzB6SH9BHgIV7M8PlJigBr9oXE_TyAWFHF8JidIonyQ?e=s2M7vU
91
what affect does the number of carrier/channel proteins have on the rate of faciliated diffusion
more proteins =faster rate cuz more points where ions/molecules can pass through
92
if temp is too high, explain what would happen to instrisnic proteins casuing the rate of faciliated diffusion to slow down.
if temp too high, intrinsic proteins may denature, so faicliated diffusion will slow down.
93
when the rate of facilitated diffsuion remains constant, what may be a limiting factor
the number of transmembrane proteins
94
osmosis def
net movement of water from a region of high water potential to a region of lower waterpotential across a partially permeable membrane.
95
what is water potential
the pressure created by water molecules (so measure in Pa). it can be seen as the likelihood of water molecules to move in/out of a solution, pure water has a water potential of 0.
96
hyper, hypo and isotonic meaning and state what happens when the surrounding solution around both animal and plants cells is hyp, hyper and iso tonic.
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/EZoup0IGpS1PiTvO7SpeKXsBivocl3W4HHKw4Ags6Bmeag?e=wzEhhL
97
the steeper the water potential gradient, the ....
faster the rate of osmosis.
98
as osmosis takes place, the difference in water potential on either side of the membrane _____, so the rata of osmosis does what
as osmosis takes place, the difference in water potential on either side of the membrane decreases, hence the rate of osmosis levels off over time
99
active transport
movement of molecules or ions from an area of low conc to an area of high conc, against a conc gradient. via using atp and carrier proteins (doesnt involve channel proteins)
100
2 main diffs of active transport and facilitated diffusion.
active transport requires atp from respiration in mitcohonrdira
atp involves movment of molecules/ions against conc gradient
101
how does active transport work
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/ETDvOgZtOkJPoyed-qJPyQsBWODFzdxeZUYDLZLpyWgdwQ?e=qrscsR
102
why do we need co-transport to absorb glucosOSE into the ileum, why cant we just use facilitated diffusion
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103
what are co-transorters?
types of carrier proteins which bond to 2 molecules at a time. the conc gradient of one (na+ in the case of absorbing glucose into the ileum via active transport) is used to move the other (glucose) against its own conc gradient.
104
while na+ moves down its conc gradient, glucose moves against its conc gradient. what causes the movement of glucsoe
it is the na+ gradient rather than Atp directly which powers the movement of glucose hence this is an indirect form of active transport
105
ENTIRE PROCESS OF COTRANSPORT AND THE ABSORPTION OF GLUCOSE INTO THE ILEUM.
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106
HOW ARE ECLLS ADAPTED FOR RAPID TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES
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107
differ between specific and non-specific defense mechanisms.
non specific: immediate, and same for all pathogens. it involves physical barriers and phagocytosis
specific: slower and specific to each pathogen, involves lymphocytes.
108
give the 2 types of specific response
cell-mediated response ( T CELLS)
humoral response (B cells)
109
to defend the body from invasion by foreign material. lymphocytes must be able tod istinguish between what?
self and non-self material otherwise if it cant it would destroy the bodys own tissue
110
what allows the immune system to recognise if the cell is self or foreign
proteins on the surface (cuz they can be of many different types and have a highly specifc tertiary stucture)
111
its the protein on the surface of the cell that allows the immunse system to identify what?
pathogens, cells from other organisms, of the same species, abnormal body cells (eg, cancerous cells or cells infected b y pathogens which have antigens (antigen is a foreign matieral) presented on their surface) and toxins
112
often the immune system recognises what as foreign? and hence what acts as antigens
the proteins on the surface of foreign cells/pathogens that the immune system recognises them as foreign, hence its often these proteins act as antigens
113
what is an antigen
a molecule that triggers an immune response by lymphocytes. it can be any part of an organism or substance that is recognised as foreign by the immune system and stimulates an immune response. eg could be a protein on its surface
114
phagocyte
type of WBC that carries out phagocytosis
115
phagocytosis
mechanism in which cells engluf particles to form a vesicle.
116
phagocytosis of pathogens process
phagocyte is attracted to pathogen
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117
the body also has specific responses that react to specific antigens. they are slower at first but provide what?.
long term immunity
118
the specifc response depends on ....
lymphocytes.
119
cellular (cell mediated) vs humoral response. what do they involve
cell mediated - immunity involving body cells that have antigens presented on their surface.
humoral: involves antibodies that are present in body fluids (eg, blood plasma)
120
T VS B LYMPHOCYTES. where do both originate, where do they mature and what response are they assoscitated with?
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antigen presenting cell
cells which present antigens of other cells on their own cell-surface membrane.
122
APC's include .... (give the types)
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123
how does cell-mediated immunity work. whole process.
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124
what do cytotoxic T cells do?
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why are cytotoxic T cells most effective against viruses?
cuz viruses hijack body cells to reproduce, hence killing the host cells prevents viruses replicating and infecting more cells.
126
humoral response involves...
antibodies that are soluble in the blood and tissue fluid
127
define a antibody and give its labelled diagram?
https://merchanttaylorsschools-my.sharepoint.com/:w:/g/personal/tofoma_merchanttaylors_com/Ed32jgqH-HZEtmWb2kGQfNYB-J21pWCaO6ezPWJwjepILg?e=3Pm1Fj
128
antibodies bind to antigens on teh surface of pathogens to form what?
antigen-antibody complexes
129
the massive variety of antibodies is possible due to what?
the variable teriary structure of proteins
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each B lymphoctye prodcues a differenty type of antibody which has antigen binding sites specifc to what?
one antigen
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when the the body is infected by foreign material, the B cell that produces antibodies specifc to that antigen is stimulated to what
stimulated to divide.
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define clonal seletion
when the specific B cell to the antigen on the surface is stimulated to divide (due to the T helper cells (activated in the cell-mediated response) attaching to the processed antigens on the B cell)to build up its numbers to a level where it can be effective in destroying the pathogen
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plasma vs memory cells
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humoral entire response process.
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primary and secondary reponse in a graph. describe what the graph is showing and explain?
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define vaccination
INJECTION of small amounts of antigens (or dead/inactive pathogenic material) to stimulate an immune response against a particular disease
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what do vaccines do?
they stimulate the production of memory cells against a particular disease without causing any symptoms. if the body is exposed to the same antigen again, antibodies are produced rapidly and the infection is overcome without any symptoms.
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herd immunity
if a large proportion of the population is immune to a disease, then the dprease of that pathogen is reduced, meaning its less likely that a person will becomeinfected and pass it on.
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how does antigenic variability affect a vaccine's effectiveness
antigenic variability may mean that a vaccine will no longer be effective against a particular disease. pathogen mutates to have different antigens, hence are no longer recognised by the immune system.
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active immunity
IMMUNITY resulting from the stimulation of an indiivudals own immune system through exposedto an antigen (B cells producing antibodies)
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passive immunity
immunity resluting from the introductiion of antibodoes into indiviudals from an outiside source
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ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL PASSIVE ACTIVE IMMUNITIES. DESCRIBE FOR EACH WHAT COULD BE AN EG.
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WHICH IS FASTER OUT OF PASSIVE AND ACTIVE IMMUNITY
PASSIVE as u dont require the exposure to an antigen.
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differentiate between active and passive immunity?
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HIV diagram
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attachment proteins on HIV allow for what?
allows the virus to bind to complementary receptor proteins on the surface of T helper cells
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whats reverse transcriptase
enzyme required for virus replication. it catalyses the production of DNA from RNA
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how does HIV replicate inside T helper cells
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overall as a result of HIV replicating inside T helper cells, what effect does that have on T helper cells, and hence what further effect does that have if the T helper cells are affected. what happens to memory cells also
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HIV/aids affect on immune system
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hiv doesnt kill indivuals directly. its the fact that a person becomes infected by a disease .... continue
and their immune system cannot respond to the infection effectively which leads to death.
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common symptoms of hiv
diarrhea, tuberculosis and pneumonia
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why are antibiotics ineffective against viruses?
Viruses don’t have their own enzymes or ribosomes; they use the host cell’s machinery, so antibiotics have nothing to target.
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What would happen if antibiotics targeted viral replication?
They would damage the host’s (human) cells since viruses replicate using the host’s structures.
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Why are antibiotics effective against bacteria?
Because they target bacterial-specific structures like enzymes, ribosomes, and cell walls that are essential for bacterial survival.
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what are monoclonal antibodies
antibodies produced from a single group of genetically identical B-cells. hence they are all identical in structure
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why are mABs specific
their binding sites have a unique tertiary structure that is complementary to only one antigen
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explain direct monoclonal antibody therapy and indirect monoclonal antibody therapy ( targeting medication to specific cell types using mABs)
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to receptors on cancer cells.
antibodies attach to surface of cancer cells and block chemical signals that stimulate their uncontrolled growth. this is direct monoclonal antibody therapy
radioactive or cytotoxic drugs can be attached to the monoclonal antibodies. when they attach to cancer cells, the cells are destroyed by the drug. this is indirect monoclonal antibody therapy.
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another example where mAbs can be used for medical diagnosis (eg diagnosing prostate cancer)
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advantages of monoclonal antibodies
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