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Science Pentathlon 23-24 > Section 2: The Sensory, Motor, and Memory Systems > Flashcards

Section 2: The Sensory, Motor, and Memory Systems Flashcards

Review/Learn Section II of the Science Pentathlon 23-24 Study Guide.

1
Q

What structure does the visual system begin with?

A

the eye

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2
Q

Where does the transduction of light take place?

A

the retina

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3
Q

What part of the eye is reshaped and shaved down during LASIK eye surgery?

A

the cornea

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4
Q

What is the cornea?

A

the front, transparent part of the eye where most fraction takes place

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5
Q

What is the iris?

A

the colored part of the eye

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6
Q

What does the iris do?

A

it controls the size of the pupil to allow the optimal amount of light through

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7
Q

The iris contracts and the pupil gets smaller in bright or dim light?

A

bright light

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8
Q

The iris relaxes and the pupil expands in bright or dim light?

A

dim light

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9
Q

Where does the cornea focus light on?

A

the retina

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10
Q

What part of the eye changes the focal length of light?

A

the lens

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11
Q

What is farsightedness?

A

when the muscles in the lens become stiff or when the distance between the cornea and retina is too short

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12
Q

What is myopia?

A

when the distance between the cornea and the retina is too long

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13
Q

Another word for myopia is ________.

A

nearsightedness

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14
Q

How can you fix myopia and farsightedness?

A

through LASIK eye surgery or glasses

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15
Q

How are the layers in the retina arranged?

A

inside out

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16
Q

What are photoreceptor neurons?

A

neurons that receive and transduce light

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17
Q

Why are the layers in the retina arranged inside out?

A

because the pigmented epithelium layer needs to be right outside of these cells

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18
Q

Where are the photoreceptor neurons in the eye located?

A

the retina

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19
Q

What do the pigmented epithelium cells do?

A

they absorb extra light and get rid of the old, worn-down parts of the photoreceptors that have to be constantly replaced.

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20
Q

Where is the choroid found?

A

right outside the pigmented epithelium layer

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21
Q

What does the choroid do?

A

it brings oxygen and nutrients to photoreceptors

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22
Q

Where is vision sharpest?

A

the fovea

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23
Q

Where is the fovea located?

A

the center of the retina

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24
Q

What are the 2 types of photoreceptors?

A

rods and cones

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25
Q

What type of light do rods process?

A

dim light

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26
Q

What type of light do cones process?

A

colors and bright light

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27
Q

What type of photoreceptor cells allow for full-color vision?

A

cones

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28
Q

What type of cone system do primates have?

A

a three-cone or trichromatic system

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29
Q

True or false: There are rods and cones in the fovea.

A

False, there are only cones in the fovea

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30
Q

What do rods have that they use to process and transduce light?

A

one opsin and one rhodopsin

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31
Q

How many types of cones do humans have?

A

3,

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32
Q

What type of wavelengths are seen as blue light?

A

short wavelengths

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33
Q

What type of wavelengths are seen as green light?

A

medium wavelengths

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34
Q

What type of wavelengths are seen as other warm colors of light?

A

long wavelengths

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35
Q

What allows primates to see hundreds of thousands of colors?

A

our trichromatic vision system

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36
Q

True or false: Animals can have different types of cones?

A

True, animals can have more or less cones and different types that have different absorption levels

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37
Q

What structure does the auditory system begin with?

A

the ear

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38
Q

What is sound?

A

a series of pressure changes in the air that has to be encoded by the brain to hear

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39
Q

What are the folds on our ears called?

A

pinnae

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40
Q

Another word for eardrum

A

tympanic membrane

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41
Q

What does the tympanic membrane do?

A

it transfers pressure waves into physical movement

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42
Q

What are the tiniest bones in the human body?

A

the ossicles

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43
Q

What are the 3 ossicles?

A

the malleus, incus, and stapes

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44
Q

Malleus comes from the Latin word for ________.

A

hammer

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45
Q

Incus comes from the Latin word for ________.

A

anvil

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46
Q

Stapes comes from the Latin word for ________.

A

stirrup

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47
Q

the cochlea does what

A

transduces sound

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48
Q

Cochlea comes from the Latin word for __________.

A

snail

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49
Q

What are semicircular canals for?

A

transducing the movement of the head and are crucial for balance

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50
Q

What 2 structures make up the semicircular canals?

A

utricle and saccule structures

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51
Q

The semicircular canals are a major part of which system?

A

the vestibular system

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52
Q

What does the vestibular system allow us to do?

A

it allows us to know where we are in space and how we’re moving through gravity

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53
Q

What sections make up the inner ear?

A

the cochlea and the semicircular canals

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54
Q

Most of the cochlea is covered in bone except for which area?

A

the oval window

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55
Q

Which ossicle pushes on the oval window?

A

stapes

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56
Q

What does the eustachian tube do?

A

connects the middle ear with the back of the throat

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57
Q

In severe cases of middle ear infection, what can happen to the auditory system?

A

the ossicles can stop fully, causing temporary hearing loss

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58
Q

How many fluid-filled cavities are in the cochlea, and what are they?

A

3, scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani

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59
Q

What is the order of the 3 fluid-filled cavities in the cochlea (top to bottom)?

A

scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani

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60
Q

What separates the cavities of the cochlea?

A

membranes

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61
Q

What membrane separates the scala tympani from the scala media?

A

the basilar membrane

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62
Q

Where is the organ of Corti?

A

on top of the basilar membrane

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63
Q

Where does auditory transduction take place?

A

the organ of Corti

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64
Q

What is auditory transduction?

A

the translation of the pressure wave to an electrochemical signal

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65
Q

What are chemoreceptors?

A

chemical receptors

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66
Q

What are the 5 tastes?

A

sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami

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67
Q

What does umami mean/describe?

A

deliciousness

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68
Q

Who identified umami?

A

Kikunae Ikeda

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69
Q

When was umami first identified?

A

1908

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70
Q

What food was first used to describe umami?

A

seaweed

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71
Q

Umami is our sensory experience of what chemical stimuli?

A

the amino acid L-glutamate

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72
Q

What is the organ of taste?

A

tastebuds

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73
Q

What are the bumps on our tongue?

A

papillae

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74
Q

Where are tastebuds found?

A

inside papillae

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75
Q

What is olfactory epithelium composed of?

A

olfactory receptor neurons and basal cells

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76
Q

Where is the olfactory epithelium layer found?

A

lining the top and back of the nasal cavity

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77
Q

How many olfactory receptors do humans have?

A

12 million

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78
Q

How many olfactory receptors do rabbits have?

A

100 million

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79
Q

How many olfactory receptors do bloodhounds have?

A

4 billion

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80
Q

How many olfactory receptors do most dogs have?

A

1 billion

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81
Q

What is population coding?

A

where broadly tuned neurons are used to encode and identify stimuli

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82
Q

What is the outermost layer of the skin?

A

the epidermis

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83
Q

What does the epidermis do?

A

protects against water and pathogens

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84
Q

What layer is found below the epidermis?

A

the dermis

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85
Q

What is found in the dermis?

A

blood vessels, sweat glands, hair follicles, and other important glands and structures

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86
Q

What is found below the dermis?

A

the subcutaneous layer

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87
Q

What is found in the subcutaneous layer?

A

blood vessels, connective tissue, and the axons of the sensory neurons

88
Q

What types of information do the mechanoreceptors provide?

A

information about vibration, touch, and pressure

89
Q

What are the 4 types of mechanoreceptors?

A

Meissner’s Corpuscles, Ruffini’s endings/corpuscles, Pacinian Corpuscles, Merkel’s Disks

90
Q

What is the largest and most well-studied mechanoreceptor?

A

Pacinian Corpuscles

91
Q

What type of stimuli are Pacinian Corpuscles good for?

A

deep vibration

92
Q

Where are Meissner’s Corpuscles generally found?

A

in glabrous skin

93
Q

What is glabrous skin?

A

hairless skin

94
Q

Where is glabrous skin found?

A

your fingers, lips, the soles of your feet, and the palms of your hand

95
Q

How do Meissner’s Corpuscles compare to Pacinian Corpuscles in size?

A

Pacinian Corpuscles are larger

96
Q

Meissner’s Corpuscles transduce information about what?

A

low-frequency vibration and flutter

97
Q

What kind of adapting quality do Meissner’s and Pacinian Corpuscles have?

A

a rapid-adapting quality

98
Q

Do Ruffini’s and Merkel’s adapt as fast as Meissner’s and Pacinian?

A

no

99
Q

What do Ruffini’s and Merkel’s do for the touch stimulus?

A

the fire action potentials for the duration of the touch stimulus

100
Q

Where can Merkel’s and Ruffini’s be found?

A

Glabrous and non-glabrous skin

101
Q

Where is touch acuity the highest?

A

fingertips and lips

102
Q
A
103
Q

Where are Merkel’s densely distributed?

A

fingertips and lips

104
Q

In which layer(s) of skin are Pacinian Corpuscles found in?

A

the subcutaneous layer

105
Q

In which layer(s) of skin are Meissner’s Corpuscles found in?

A

the dermis

106
Q

In which layer(s) of skin are Ruffini’s Corpuscles found in?

A

the dermis

107
Q

In which layer(s) of skin are Merkel’s disks found in?

A

the dermis and epidermis

108
Q

In which layer(s) of skin are free nerve endings found in?

A

the dermis and epidermis

109
Q

Mechanoreceptors near the surface of the skin are better for what type of information?

A

information that is precise about the location, size, and physical properties of the stimulus

110
Q

Mechanoreceptors farther from the surface of the skin are better for what type of information?

A

information on the general qualities of the stimulus, like force and vibration

111
Q

What is 2-point discrimination?

A

the measure of how close 2 nearby objects are when you can tell they are 2 different objects

112
Q

What is 2-point threshold?

A

the smallest distance between 2 points where you can still tell there are 2 different stimuli

113
Q

What can be used to measure 2-point threshold?

A

calipers or a bent paper clip

114
Q

Where is 2-point discrimination highest?

A

fingertips, lips, and tongue

115
Q

What do the areas with the highest 2-point discrimination have in common?

A

they all are highly innervated

116
Q

How many spinal segments are there?

A

30

117
Q

How many cervical spinal segments are there?

A

8

118
Q

How many thoracic spinal segments are there?

A

12

119
Q

How many lumbar spinal segments are there?

A

5

120
Q

How many sacral spinal segments are there?

A

5

121
Q

What is a dermatome?

A

all the skin innervated by one segment of the spinal cord

122
Q

What is shingles?

A

a reactivation of the chickenpox virus that is dormant in one spinal nerve root, causing a rash to appear in that dermatome

123
Q

Why is the map of dermatomes weirdly distorted and confusing?

A

because humans evolved from walking on all 4s with our heading pointing forward

124
Q

Why is there no C1 dermatome?

A

because that dermatome is mostly motor output rather than sensory input

125
Q

What is an example of a cranial nerve?

A

the trigeminal nerve

126
Q

How do the head and neck send their sensory input?

A

through the cranial nerves

127
Q

What are nerve endings that transduce temperature called?

A

thermoreceptors

128
Q

When are low-threshold thermoreceptors activated?

A

temperatures between 15 and 45 C

129
Q

When are high-threshold thermoreceptors activated?

A

temperatures below 15C and above 45C

130
Q

Why are hot and cold sensations brought up to the brain through smaller axons than mechanoreceptors?

A

because temperature is not as crucial to reach the brain quickly compared to touch information

131
Q

What is the cognitive experience of discomfort?

A

pain

132
Q

What transduces pain?

A

free nerve endings

133
Q

Where are free nerve endings located in the skin?

A

near the surface of the epidermis and also in the dermis

134
Q

Pain at the tissue level is referred to as what?

A

nociception

135
Q

What compound makes spicy peppers hot?

A

capsaicin

136
Q

How does capsaicin make spicy food feel hot?

A

capsaicin opens the same calcium channels as warm thermoreceptors

137
Q

What is hyperalgesia?

A

a temporarily increased sensitivity to pain

138
Q

What is congenital analgesia?

A

a hereditary insensitivity to pain

139
Q

When someone has defects in their free nerve endings, what other sensation can they not feel?

A

temperature

140
Q

What are dorsal root ganglion or DRG?

A

bundles of cell bodies of sensory neurons

141
Q

What are sensory neurons referred to as?

A

afferents

142
Q

What are motor neurons referred to as?

A

efferents

143
Q

What is proprioception?

A

your sense of where your body is in space

144
Q

How does your body calculate proprioception?

A

by the amount of stretch and force on your muscles, limbs, joints, and tendons

145
Q

What does decussate mean?

A

to cross the center of the body one time

146
Q

Where does each pathway synapse, which will then relay that information to the cerebral cortex?

A

the thalamus

147
Q

Medial Lemniscus comes from the Greek word for _________.

A

ribbon

148
Q

How does touch and proprioception information travel to the brain?

A

through the dorsal column medial lemniscal system or DCML system

149
Q

Where does the DCML wind up before traveling to the thalamus?

A

the brainstem

150
Q

In the DCML, neurons carrying information synapse where in the brainstem?

A

the gracile nucleus of the medulla for information on the lower body, the cuneate nucleus of the medulla for the upper body

151
Q

Where is all somatosensation processed?

A

the somatosensory cortex

152
Q

How does pain and temperature information travel up to the brain?

A

the anterolateral spinothalamic system

153
Q

What part of our body do lower motor neurons synapse onto?

A

our muscles

154
Q

What chemical do they release in the space between the terminal and the muscle?

A

acetylcholine

155
Q

What is the space between the terminal of the neuron and the muscle called?

A

the neuromuscular junction

156
Q

Where do lower motor neurons get most of their information?

A

from upper motor neurons

157
Q

What is the most famous example of a motor reflex?

A

the myotatic reflex

158
Q

The primary motor cortex and other associated areas do what?

A

they plan voluntary movement, make decisions about movement strategies, and coordinate sequences of movement

159
Q

What other area works with the primary motor cortex?

A

the premotor cortex

160
Q

Where does most voluntary information travel?

A

the rubrospinal and corticospinal tracts

161
Q

The rubrospinal and corticospinal tracts can be referred to as what?

A

the lateral motor system

162
Q

What is the corticobulbar system?

A

a system that doesn’t travel through the spinal cord, but instead it controls the brainstem nuclei, which innervate the cranial nerves to control facial movements

163
Q

Where does the corticospinal tract begin?

A

the primary motor cortex

164
Q

What is another name for the corticospinal tract?

A

the pyramidal tract

165
Q

Where does the rubrospinal tract begin?

A

a small part midbrain called the red nucleus

166
Q

What is the red nucleus named after?

A

its pinkish appearance

167
Q

What are the ventromedial pathways?

A

the tectospinal, vestibulospinal, reticulospinal tracts

168
Q

Where does the vestibulospinal tract originate?

A

the vestibular organs of the inner ear, like the semicircular canals

169
Q

What does the vestibulospinal tract provide information on?

A

the direction of gravity, spin, and other forces acting on the body and head

170
Q

Where does the tectospinal tract originate from?

A

the roof or tectum of the midbrain

171
Q

Where does the reticulospinal tract originate?

A

the reticular formation of the pons

172
Q

What areas does the reticulospinal tract target?

A

the torso and the legs

173
Q

What does the basal ganglia do?

A

it is involved with the initiation and execution of movement

174
Q

What 2 diseases are involved with damage to the basal ganglia?

A

Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease

175
Q

What is a shuffling gait?

A

too little movement

176
Q

What are spastic twitches?

A

too much movement

177
Q

The cerebellum comes from the Latin word for ______.

A

little brain

178
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

the back of the brain, underneath the temporal and occipital lobes

179
Q
A
180
Q

What is the role of the cerebellum?

A

learning of new motor tasks and skills

181
Q

How many layers does the cerebellar cortex have?

A

3

182
Q

What type of neuron has dendrites that form a corral-like array and it nearly flat?

A

Purkinje cells

183
Q

Where does output from the cerebellar cortex come from?

A

Purkinje cells

184
Q

What is motor learning?

A

an unconscious form of learning through repetition where the brain and body adapts through feedback on a motor command

185
Q

What do prism goggles do?

A

the shift your vision to the right

186
Q

Will damage to the hippocampus erase previous long-term memories?

A

No, because long-term memories are not stored in the hippocampus

187
Q

What does damage to both hippocampi result in?

A

it can result in being unable to form new long-term memories

188
Q

Where are long-term memories stored?

A

in the area related to the memory

189
Q

When did patient H.M. go through brain surgery?

A

the 1950s

190
Q

Why did patient H.M. have both of his hippocampi removed?

A

to try to control his seizures

191
Q

Where does most of the input for the hippocampus come from?

A

the entorhinal cortex

192
Q

How many layers does the entorhinal cortex have?

A

6

193
Q

On average, how many items can most people retain in their short-term memory?

A

5-9

194
Q

What area of the brain is critical for maintaining short-term memory?

A

the prefrontal cortex

195
Q

What 3 processes make up long-term memory?

A

encoding, storage, and retrieval

196
Q

What is encoding when creating long-term memories?

A

learning or gaining the information

197
Q

What is storage when creating long-term memories?

A

filing away the information, happens subconsciously

198
Q

What is retrieval when creating long-term memories?

A

recalling the information

199
Q

What are the 2 types of long-term memory?

A

explicit and implicit memory

200
Q

What type of long-term memory can be consciously recalled?

A

explicit memory

201
Q

Explicit memory can be _____ memory.

A

semantic memory

202
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

facts without any context or emotions

203
Q

How is explicit memory made?

A

through consolidation by the hippocampus

204
Q

Does implicit memory use the hippocampus?

A

No

205
Q

What is implicit memory?

A

unconscious and unrehearsed memory

206
Q

How long does implicit memory stick around?

A

for a lifetime

207
Q

What type of long-term memory is slow to encode?

A

implicit memory

208
Q

What type of long-term memories was Patient H.M. able to make?

A

implicit memories because it doesn’t involve the hippocampus

209
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

a subtype of implicit memory, memories associated with learned motor skills

210
Q

What type of long-term memory are habits?

A

implicit memory

211
Q

Habits rely on what structures in the brain?

A

the basal ganglia

212
Q

What is priming?

A

when one stimulus influences your memory

213
Q

What type of long-term memory involves emotional associations?

A

implicit memory

214
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

getting a subject to form an association between a meaningful stimulus and a neutral stimulus

215
Q

Implicit memory is reliant on which brain regions?

A

limbic regions, like the cerebellum and amygdala (though obviously not the hippocampus)

Science Pentathlon 23-24 (3 decks)

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