Section 3 - Basic and applied sciences and Nutritional concepts Flashcards
(425 cards)
1
Q
Human movement system (HMS)
A
The collective components and structures that work together to move the body: muscular, skeletal, and nervous systems.
2
Q
Kinetic chain
A
A concept that describes the human body as a chain of interdependent links that work together to perform movement.
3
Q
Nervous system
A
A network of specialized cells called neurons that transmit and coordinate signals, providing a communication network within the human body.
4
Q
Neuron
A
Specialized cell that is the functional unit of the nervous system.
5
Q
Nucleus
A
Cellular structure or organelle that contains the majority of the cell’s genetic material in the form of chromosomes.
6
Q
Organelles
A
Tiny cellular structures that perform specific functions within a cell. Examples include nuclei, mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum.
7
Q
Mitochondria
A
The parts of the cell that use nutrients to create energy for the cell; commonly known as the powerhouses of the cell.
8
Q
Effector sites
A
A part of the body, such as a muscle or organ, that receives a signal from a neuron to produce a physiological response.
9
Q
Electrolytes
A
Minerals that have an electrical charge to help transmit nerve impulses throughout the body, such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
10
Q
Central nervous system (CNS)
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A division of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.
11
Q
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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Nerves that connect the rest of the body to the central nervous system.
12
Q
Afferent pathway
A
Sensory pathway that relays information to the central nervous system.
13
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Efferent pathway
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A motor pathway that relays information from the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
14
Q
Interneurons
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Neurons located within the spinal cord and brain that transmit impulses between afferent and efferent neurons.
15
Q
Mechanoreceptors
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Specialized structures that respond to mechanical forces (touch and pressure) within tissues and then transmit signals through sensory nerves.
16
Q
Somatic nervous system
A
Nerves that serve the outer areas of the body and skeletal muscle and are largely responsible for the voluntary control of movement.
17
Q
Autonomic nervous system
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A division of the peripheral nervous system that supplies neural input to organs that run the involuntary processes of the body (e.g., circulating blood, digesting food, producing hormones).
18
Q
Sympathetic nervous system
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Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that works to increase neural activity and put the body in a heightened state.
19
Q
Parasympathetic nervous system
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Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that works to decrease neural activity and put the body in a more relaxed state.
20
Q
Sensory function
A
Ability of the nervous system to sense changes in either the internal or external environment.
21
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Proprioception
A
The body’s ability to naturally sense its general orientation and relative position of its parts.
22
Q
Integrative function
A
The ability of the nervous system to analyze and interpret the sensory information to allow for proper decision-making, which produces an appropriate response.
23
Q
Motor function
A
The neuromuscular (or nervous and muscular systems) response to the integrated sensory information.
24
Q
Muscle spindles
A
Sensory receptors sensitive to change in length of the muscle and the rate of that change.
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Stretch reflex
Neurological signal from the muscle spindle that causes a muscle to contract to prevent excessive lengthening.
26
Golgi tendon organ (GTO)
A specialized sensory receptor located at the point where skeletal muscle fibers insert into the tendons of skeletal muscle; sensitive to changes in muscular tension and rate of tension change.
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Joint receptors
Receptors located in and around the joint capsule that respond to pressure, acceleration, and deceleration of the joint.
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Neuroplasticity
The concept that the brain will continually change or grow, reforming neural pathways throughout an individual’s entire life span.
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Neurocircuitry
The interconnection of neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
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Motor skills
Specific movements through the coordinated effort of the sensory and motor subsystems.
31
Skeletal system
A description of the bones of the body
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Osteoporosis
A condition of reduced bone mineral density, which increases risk of bone fracture.
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Joints
The sites where two bones meet and movement occurs as a result of muscle contraction.
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Axial skeleton
A division of the skeletal system consisting of the skull, the rib cage, and the vertebral column.
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Appendicular skeleton
A division of the skeletal system consisting of the arms, legs, and pelvic girdle.
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Levers
Rigid rods where muscles attach.
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Remodeling
The process by which bone is constantly renewed by the resorption and formation of the bone structure.
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Osteoclasts
Special cells that break down and remove old bone tissue.
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Osteoblasts
Special cells that form and lay down new bone tissue.
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Wolff’s law
Scientific explanation of how remodeling (new bone growth) occurs along the lines of stress placed on the bone.
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Depressions
Flattened or indented portions of bone.
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Processes
Projections protruding from the bone where tendons or ligaments can attach
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Vertebral column
Bones that house the spinal cord; consists of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbosacral regions.
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Spinal cord
Bundle of nerves housed within the vertebrae.
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Intervertebral discs
Fibrous cartilage structures between vertebrae that act as shock absorbers and assist with movement.
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Neutral Spine
Represents a position in which the vertebrae and associated structures are under the least amount of load and can most optimally support functional movement.
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Osteokinematics
movement of a limb that is visible
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Arthrokinematics
The description of joint surface movement; consists of three major types: roll, slide, and spin.
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Synovial joints
a joint with a fluid filled joint capsule
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Non Axial
A gliding joint that moves in only one plane, either back and forth or side to side.
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Nonsynovial joints
Joints that have no joint capsule, fibrous connective tissue, or cartilage in the uniting structure.
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Ligament
A fibrous connective tissue that connects bone to bone.
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Collagen
A protein found in connective tissue, muscles, and skin that provides strength and structure. It is the most abundant protein in the human body.
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Elastin
A protein that provides elasticity to skin, tendons, ligaments, and other structures.
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Growth Plate
A specialized cartilage disc located in the epiphysis that is responsible for longitudinal bone growth.
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Skeletal muscle
The type of muscle tissue that connects to bones and generates the forces that create movement.
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Fascia
Connective tissue that surrounds muscles and bones.
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Epimysium
Inner layer of fascia that directly surrounds an entire muscle, commonly referred to as the “deep fascia.”
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Fascicles
Largest bundles of fibers within a muscle. Fascicles are surrounded by perimysium.
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Perimysium
Connective tissue surrounding a muscle fascicle.
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Endomysium
Connective tissue that wraps around individual muscle fibers within a fascicle.
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Glycogen
Glucose that is deposited and stored in bodily tissues, such as the liver and muscle cells; the storage form of carbohydrate.
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Myoglobin
Protein-based molecule that carries oxygen molecules into the muscles.
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Myofibrils
The contractile components of a muscle cell; the myofilaments (actin and myosin) are contained within a myofibril.
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Myofilaments
The filaments of a myofibril; include actin and myosin.
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Actin
The thin, stringlike, myofilament that acts along with myosin to produce muscular contraction.
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Myosin
The thick myofilament that acts along with actin to produce muscular contraction.
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Sarcomere
The structural unit of a myofibril composed of actin and myosin filaments between two Z-lines.
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Z-line
the meeting point of each Sarcomere
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Neural activation
The nervous system’s signal that tells a muscle to contract.
Neuromuscular
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Neuromuscular junction
The specialized site where the nervous system communicates directly with muscle fibers.
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Synapse
A junction or small gap between the motor neuron and muscle cells.
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Motor unit
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers that it innervates.
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Action potential
Nerve impulse that is relayed from the central nervous system, through the peripheral nervous system, and into the muscle across the neuromuscular junction.
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Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synapse between neuron and muscle and assist with nerve transmission.
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
A neurotransmitter that helps the action potential cross the synapse into the muscle, which initiates the steps in a muscle contraction.
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Sliding filament theory
The series of steps in muscle contraction involving how myosin (thick) and actin (thin) filaments slide past one another to produce a muscle contraction, shortening the entire length of the sarcomere.
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Excitation-contraction coupling
The physiological process of converting an electrical stimulus to a muscle contraction.
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Power stroke
The myosin heads bind to actin and pull them toward the sarcomere center, which slides the filaments past each other, shortening the muscle.
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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
A high-energy molecule that serves as the main form of energy in the human body; known as the energy currency of the body.
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Resting length
The length of a muscle when it is not actively contracting or being stretched.
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Type I muscle fibers
Muscle fibers that are small in size, generate lower amounts of force, and are more resistant to fatigue.
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Type II muscle fibers
Muscle fibers that are larger in size, generate higher amounts of force, and are faster to fatigue.
All-o
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All-or-nothing principle
Motor units cannot vary the amount of force they generate; they either contract maximally or not at all.
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Capillaries
The smallest blood vessels and the site of exchange of elements between the blood and the tissues.
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Which of the following refers to the series of steps in muscle contraction?
The sliding filament theory
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Cardiorespiratory system
A system of the body composed of the heart, blood, blood vessels, lungs, and airways.
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Cardiovascular system
A system of the body, also known as the circulatory system, that transports blood to tissues of the body.
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Thoracic cavity
Chamber within the chest that contains the heart and lungs.
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Mediastinum
The space in the chest between the lungs that contains all the internal organs of the chest (e.g., heart, esophagus) except the lungs.
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Cardiac muscle
Muscle of the heart.
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Smooth muscle
An involuntary nonstriated muscle type that is found in organs.
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Atrium (atria)
Superior chamber(s) of the heart that gathers blood returning to the heart.
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Ventricle
Inferior chamber of the heart that pumps blood to the lungs and body.
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Intercalated discs
Found in the heart, these formations help hold together muscle cells.
96
Resting heart rate (RHR)
The number of heart beats per minute while at complete rest.
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Sinoatrial (SA) node
Located in the right atrium, this node initiates an electrical signal that causes the heart to beat.
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Atrioventricular (AV) node
Located between the atria and ventricles, this node delays the impulse from the sinoatrial node before allowing it to pass to the ventricles.
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Stroke volume
The amount of blood pumped out of the heart with each contraction.
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End-diastolic volume
The filled volume of the ventricle before contraction.
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End-systolic volume
The volume of blood remaining in the ventricle after ejection.
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Heart rate (HR)
The measurement of the number of times a heart beats within a specified time period (usually 1 minute).
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Bradycardia
When the heart rate is less than 60 beats per minute.
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Tachycardia
When the heart rate is greater than 100 beats per minute.
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Cardiac output (Q)
The overall performance of the heart (heart rate × stroke volume).
106
Blood
Fluid that circulates in the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins; it carries nutrients and oxygen to all parts of the body and also transports waste products from the body to other compartments or organs for either processing (e.g., liver) or excretion (e.g., kidney).
107
Growth factors
Substances within the blood that attach to cells, aid in growth and development, and help with healing after injury
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Stem cells
Cells within the body that divide and develop into specialized cells, such as brain cells, blood cells, heart cells, and bone cells.
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Blood vessels
Network of hollow tubes that circulates blood throughout the body.
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Arteries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart and to the lungs.
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Veins
Vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart and then to the lungs.
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Arterioles
Small arteries that eventually divide into capillaries.
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Venules
Small veins that allows blood to drain from capillaries into the larger veins.
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Vasculogenesis
The formation of new capillaries.
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Angiogenesis
The formation of new capillaries from existing blood vessels.
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Venous pooling
The accumulation of blood into the extremities due to slow blood flow though the veins (venous return) or backflow.
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Peripheral resistance
The amount of resistance in the arteries that must be overcome for blood to flow.
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Hypertension
Consistently elevated blood pressure.
119
What is the right side of the heart referred to as?
The pulmonic side
120
Respiratory system
A bodily system, also known as the pulmonary system, that brings oxygen into the lungs from breathed air while removing carbon dioxide from the lungs into the outside air; includes airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles.
121
Respiratory pump
Composed of skeletal structures (bones) and soft tissues (muscles) that work together to allow for proper respiratory mechanics as well as pumping blood back to the heart during inspiration.
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Inspiration
The process of contracting the inspiratory muscles to move air into the body.
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Expiration
The process of actively or passively relaxing the inspiratory muscles to move air out of the body.
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Valsalva maneuver
A process that involves expiring against a closed windpipe, creating additional intra-abdominal pressure and spinal stability.
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Diffusion
The process of getting oxygen from the environment to the tissues of the body.
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Tachypnea
Respiratory rate that is too fast; greater than 24 breaths per minute.
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Bradypnea
Respiratory rate that is too slow; fewer than 8 breaths per minute.
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Dyspnea
Shortness of breath or labored breathing.
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Diaphragmatic breathing
Breathing deeply by allowing the expansion of the abdominal area.
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What is the primary role of the respiratory system?
To ensure proper cellular function
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Lipolysis
The breakdown and utilization of fat for energy.
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Enzyme
A substance in the body that causes a specific reaction or change.
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Glands
Organs that release substances into the bloodstream (such as hormones) or other surface of the body.
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Hormone
Chemical messenger released from a gland that travels to cells to activate a specific function.
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Target (receptor) cell
Cell that receives a message from a hormone or enzyme. Target cells exert an action after being stimulated or activated.
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Hypothalamus
A gland located in the brain that communicates with the pituitary gland.
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Pineal gland
A small gland in the brain that secretes the hormone melatonin, which helps regulate sleep cycles.
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Pancreas
An organ with numerous functions, including the production of insulin, glucagon, and digestive juices.
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Thyroid gland
An endocrine gland, located in the anterior neck, responsible for the secretion of many hormones, including thyroxin and calcitonin.
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Pituitary gland
An endocrine gland that controls the secretion of many hormones, including growth hormone.
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Adrenal gland
A gland, located just above the kidneys, responsible for the secretion of catecholamines and cortisol.
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Reproductive glands
Glands, such as the ovaries or testes, that serve sex-specific functions.
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Insulin
A hormone secreted by the pancreas that is responsible for glucose metabolism.
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Glucagon
A hormone secreted by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose and functions opposite to insulin.
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Substrates
Intermediate forms of nutrients used in metabolic reactions to create adenosine triphosphate.
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Gylcogen
Glucose that is deposited and stored in bodily tissues, such as the liver and muscle cells; the storage form of carbohydrate.
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Growth hormone
An anabolic hormone produced by the pituitary gland that is responsible for growth and development.
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Catecholamines
Hormones produced by the adrenal glands that are part of the stress response known as the fight-or-flight response.
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Catabolic
Metabolic process that breaks down molecules into smaller units used for energy.
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Gluconeogenesis
The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources (proteins and fats).
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Overtraining
Excessive frequency, volume, or intensity of training, resulting in reduction of performance, which is also caused by a lack of proper rest and recovery.
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Testosterone
A hormone producing secondary male sex characteristics.
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Anabolic
Metabolic process that synthesizes smaller molecules into larger units used for building and repairing tissues.
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Insulin-like growth factors (IGF)
Anabolic hormone produced by the liver, which is responsible for growth and development.
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Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
The amount of energy required to maintain the body at rest.
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Calcitonin
Thyroid hormone that helps the body use calcium properly to aid with maintaining bone mineral density.
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Glucose intolerance
A condition that results in elevated blood glucose levels.
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Gall bladder
An organ found below the liver, on the right side of the body, that receives bile from the liver and secretes it into the duodenum.
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Liver
An organ in the upper-right abdominal cavity with numerous functions, including the production and secretion of bile, which is stored and concentrated in the gall bladder prior to release into the duodenum.
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Motility
In the digestive system, refers to movements of the anatomical structures that allow contents to pass through.
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Mastication
The mechanical process whereby the oral muscles break down food.
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Peristalsis
The muscle action of the gastrointestinal system that pushes food through the body during digestion.
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Digestion
Multistep process that describes the passage of food through the body.
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Ingestion
The act of taking food, liquid, or other substances into the body in preparation for digestion.
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Absorbtion
The process of nutrients being absorbed into the body during the digestive process.
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Esophagus
The anatomical part of the digestive tract that allows food to pass from oral cavity to stomach.
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Chyme
A semifluid mass of digested food that is passed from the stomach to the small intestine.
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Duodenum
Part of the small intestine that resides between the stomach and the jejunum.
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Jejunum
Part of the small intestine that resides between the duodenum and the ileum.
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Regional interdependence model
The concept describing the integrated functioning of multiple body systems or regions of the body.
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Ileum
The final section of the small intestine, located between the jejunum and the cecum and leads to the large intestine.
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Biomechanics
The science concerned with the internal and external forces acting on the human body and the effects produced by these forces.
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Kinesiology
Study of movement as it relates to anatomy and physiology.
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Anatomic position
The position with the body erect, the arms at the sides, and the palms forward. It is the position of reference for anatomic nomenclature.
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Sagittal plane
An imaginary bisector that divides the body into left and right halves.
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Flexion
A bending movement in which the relative angle between two adjacent segments decreases.
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Extension
A straightening movement in which the relative angle between two adjacent segments increases.
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Hyperextension
Extension of a joint beyond the normal limit or range of motion.
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Dorsiflexion
Flexion occurring at the ankle.
180
Plantar flexion
Extension occurring at the ankle. Pointing the foot downwards.
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Frontal plane
An imaginary bisector that divides the body into front and back halves. Movement in the frontal plane includes abduction, adduction, and side-to-side motions.
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Abduction
A movement in the frontal plane away from the midline of the body.
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Adduction
Movement in the frontal plane back toward the midline of the body.
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Lateral Flexion
Bending of the spine from side to side.
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Eversion
A movement in which the inferior calcaneus (heel bone) moves laterally. The bottom of foot faces outward.
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Inversion
A movement in which the inferior calcaneus (heel bone) moves medially. Bottom of foot faces inward.
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Transverse plane
An imaginary bisector that divides the body into top and bottom halves.
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Internal rotation
Rotation of a body segment toward the middle of the body.
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External rotation
Rotation of a body segment away from the middle of the body.
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Horizontal Abdution
Movement of the arm or thigh in the transverse plane from an anterior position to a lateral position.
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Horizontal Adduction
Movement of the arm or thigh in the transverse plane from a lateral position to an anterior position.
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Radioulnar pronation
Inward rotation of the forearm from a palm-up position to a palm-down position.
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Radioulnar supination
Outward rotation of the forearm from a palm-down position to a palm-up position.
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Pronation of the foot
Multiplanar movement of the foot and ankle complex consisting of eversion, dorsiflexion, and ankle abduction; associated with force reduction.
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Supination of the foot
Multiplanar movement of the foot and ankle complex consisting of inversion, plantar flexion, and ankle adduction; associated with force production.
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Gait
Biomechanical motion of the lower extremities during walking, running, and sprinting.
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Scapular retraction
Adduction of scapulae; shoulder blades move toward the midline.
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Scapular protraction
Abduction of scapulae; shoulder blades move away from the midline.
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Scapular depression
Downward (inferior) motion of the scapulae.
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Scapular elevation
Upward (superior) motion of the scapulae.
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Flexibility
The normal extensibility of soft tissues that allows for full range of motion of a joint.
202
Hypermobility
A state where a lack of neuromuscular support leads to a joint having more range of motion than it should, greatly increasing the risk of injury at that joint.
203
Hypomobility
When range of motion at a joint is limited.
204
Eccentric muscle action
A muscle action that occurs when a muscle develops tension while lengthening.
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Motor unit
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers that it innervates.
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Concentric Muscle Action
A muscle action that occurs when a muscle is exerting force greater than the resistive force, resulting in a shortening of the muscle.
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Isometric muscle action
When a muscle is exerting force equal to the force being placed on it leading to no visible change in the muscle length.
208
Core
The structures that make up the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex (LPHC), including the lumbar spine, pelvic girdle, abdomen, and hip joint.
209
Muscle action spectrum
The full range of eccentric, isometric, and concentric muscle contractions required to perform a movement.
210
What are the three overarching types of muscle actions?
Isotonic, isometric, and isokinetic
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Agonists
The primary muscles providing force for a movement.
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Synergists
Muscles that assist agonists to produce a movement.
213
Stabilizers
Muscles that contract isometrically to stabilize the trunk and joints as the body moves.
214
Feed-forward activation
When a muscle is automatically activated in anticipation of a movement.
215
Antagonists
Muscles on the opposite side of a joint that are in direct opposition of agonist muscles.
216
Muscle balance
When all muscles surrounding a joint have optimal length-tension relationships, allowing the joint to rest in a neutral position.
217
Altered length relationship
When a muscle’s resting length is too short or too long, reducing the amount of force it can produce.
218
Reciprocal inhibition
When an agonist receives a signal to contract, its functional antagonist also receives an inhibitory signal allowing it to lengthen.
219
Altered reciprocal inhibition
Occurs when an overactive agonist muscle decreases the neural drive to its functional antagonist.
220
Muscle imbalance
When muscles on each side of a joint have altered length-tension relationships.
221
Neutral position
The optimal resting position of a joint that allows it to function efficiently through its entire normal range of motion.
222
Stretch-shortening cycle
Loading of a muscle eccentrically to prepare it for a rapid concentric contraction.
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Series elastic component
Springlike noncontractile component of muscle and tendon that stores elastic energy.
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Amortization phase
The transition from eccentric loading to concentric unloading during the stretch-shortening cycle.
225
Stretch reflex
Neurological signal from the muscle spindle that causes a muscle to contract to prevent excessive lengthening.
226
Integrated performance paradigm
To move with efficiency, forces must be dampened (eccentrically), stabilized (isometrically), and then accelerated (concentrically).
227
Force-couple relationship
The synergistic action of multiple muscles working together to produce movement around a joint.
228
Joint support systems
Muscular stabilization systems located in joints distal of the spine.
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Rotary motion
Movement of the bones around the joints.
230
Torque
A force that produces rotation; common unit of measurement is the Newton meter (Nm).
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What does the term force refer to?
The ability of one entity to act on another entity, causing acceleration or deceleration
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Motor behavior
Motor response to internal and external environmental stimuli.
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Motor control
How the central nervous system integrates internal and external sensory information with previous experiences to produce a motor response.
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Motor learning
Integration of motor control processes through practice and experience, leading to a relatively permanent change in the capacity to produce skilled motor behavior.
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Motor development
Change in skilled motor behavior over time throughout the life span.
236
Muscle synergies
Groups of muscles that are recruited simultaneously by the central nervous system to provide movement.
237
Mechanoreceptors
Specialized structures that respond to mechanical forces (touch and pressure) within tissues and then transmit signals through sensory nerves.
238
Proprioception
The body’s ability to naturally sense its general orientation and relative position of its parts.
239
Sensorimotor integration
Cooperation of the nervous and muscular system in gathering and interpreting information and executing movement.
239
Feedback
Use of sensory information and sensorimotor integration to help the human movement system in motor learning.
240
Internal feedback
Process whereby sensory information is used by the body to reactively monitor movement and the environment.
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External feedback
Information provided by some external source, such as a fitness professional, video, mirror, or heart rate monitor, to supplement the internal environment.
242
Neuromuscular efficiency
The ability of the nervous system to recruit the correct muscles to produce force, reduce force, and dynamically stabilize the body’s structure in all three planes of motion.
243
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
A high-energy molecule that serves as the main form of energy in the human body; known as the energy currency of the body.
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Bioenergetics
The study of energy in the human body.
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Metabolism
All of the chemical reactions that occur in the body to maintain itself.
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Exercise metabolism
The examination of bioenergetics as it relates to the unique physiologic changes and demands placed on the body during exercise.
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Macronutrients
Food substances required in large amounts to supply energy and include protein, carbohydrate, and fat.
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First law of thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but merely converted from one form to another.
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Substrates
Intermediate forms of nutrients used in metabolic reactions to create adenosine triphosphate.
249
Ventilatory threshold 1 (VT1)
The point at which the body uses an equal mix of carbohydrate and fat as fuel sources.
250
Ventilatory threshold 2 (VT2)
The point where glucose provides nearly all of the energy for the activity.
251
Free fatty acids
The by-products of the breakdown of stored or consumed fats, metabolized exclusively via the aerobic pathway, which uses oxygen to create adenosine triphosphate
251
Fats
One of the three main classes of foods and a source of energy in the body. Fats help the body use some vitamins and keep the skin healthy. They also serve as energy stores for the body. In food, there are two types of fats: saturated and unsaturated.
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Triglyceride
The chemical or substrate form in which most fat exists in food as well as in the body.
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Protein
Amino acids linked by peptide bonds; the building blocks of body tissues.
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Essential amino acid (EAA)
Amino acid that must be obtained through the diet as the body does not make it; there are nine essential amino acids.
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Nonessential amino acids
Amino acids that can be synthesized by the body and do not, under normal circumstances, need to be obtained in the diet.
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Negative energy balance
When calorie intake is lower than the number of calories expended.
255
Gluconeogenesis
The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources (proteins and fats).
256
Ketogenesis
The formation of ketone bodies from nonfat sources, such as certain amino acids.
257
Ketone bodies
Water-soluble molecules produced in the liver as a result of fatty acid oxidation. They can then be oxidized in the mitochondria to produce adenosine triphosphate.
258
Ketosis
A state of carbohydrate depletion where the liver manufactures ketone bodies to meet energy demands that free fatty acid oxidation cannot support
259
Exogenous ketones
Isolated ketone bodies usually consumed in supplement form.
260
Insulin resistance
The inability of the cells to respond to insulin; occurs in type 2 diabetes.
261
Ketoacidosis
Metabolic acidosis induced by very high levels of ketone bodies such as seen in type 1 diabetes or severe insulin resistance.
262
For conversion purposes, how many calories equals 1 pound (about 0.5 kilogram) of body fat?
3,500 calories
262
Of the 20 amino acids used by the human body, how many are called essential amino acids?
9
263
Mechanical work
The physical processes that move the body and keep it alive, such as muscle contraction.
264
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
A high-energy compound occurring in all cells from which adenosine triphosphate is formed
265
Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, such as in the transfer of a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate to create adenosine triphosphate.
266
ATP-PC System
An energy system that provides energy very rapidly, for approximately 10–15 seconds, via anaerobic metabolism.
267
Anaerobic
Processes relating to the absence of oxygen.
268
Glycolysis
A metabolic process that occurs in the cytosol of a cell that converts glucose into pyruvate and adenosine triphosphate. Anaerobic glycolysis refers to when this process occurs in the absence of oxygen.
269
Oxidative phosphorylation
A series of reactions inside the mitochondria that uses oxygen to produce adenosine triphosphate.
270
Aerobic
Processes relating to, involving, or requiring oxygen.
271
Deamination
The breakdown of amino acids into substrates that can be used for energy metabolism.
272
Mitochondria
The parts of the cell that use nutrients to create energy for the cell; commonly known as the powerhouses of the cell.
273
Electron transport chain (ETC)
A series of protein complexes that transfer protons and electrons received from the citric acid cycle through a series of reactions to create adenosine triphosphate.
274
Acetyl coenzyme A
Produced by the breakdown of carbohydrates through glycolysis and by the fatty acids through beta-oxidation and is the precursor for these substrates to the citric acid cycle.
275
Beta-oxidation
The first step in the process to break down fats via oxidative phosphorylation.
276
What is the primary energy-providing molecule in the human body?
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
277
Steady-state aerobic exercise
Aerobic exercise that remains at a relatively constant intensity, including a stable heart rate and oxygen consumption.
278
Excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
The state in which the body’s metabolism is elevated after exercise.
279
Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE)
The total amount of energy expended in one day.
280
Kilocalorie (kcal)
One food calorie. Also, the amount of energy needed to raise one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius.
281
Resting metabolic rate (RMR)
The rate at which the body expends energy (calories) when fasted and at complete rest, such as asleep or lying quietly.
282
Exercise activity thermogenesis (EAT)
The calories expended through structured exercise or training.
283
Thermic effect of food (TEF)
The energy required to digest, absorb, and process nutrients that are consumed.
284
Nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT)
Energy expenditure through daily activities outside of structured exercise, such as walking, completing household chores, and taking the stairs.
285
Physical activity level (PAL)
The number of calories a person expends through physical activity and structured exercise.
286
Metabolic equivalent (MET)
A measurement used to describe the energy cost of physical activity as multiples of resting metabolic rate. One MET is 3.5 mL of oxygen consumption per kilogram per minute.
287
What are the components of ATP?
Adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups
288
Nutrition
A process of obtaining nutrients through food and/or food products to support energy requirements and cellular processes, including growth, repair and maintenance of tissues, reproduction, digestive processes, and respiration.
289
CDN
Certified Dietitian Nutritionist: state certified dietitian/nutritionist.
290
Nutrition claim
Claim that a food has a specific nutritional property or provides a specific benefit.
291
Macronutrients
Food substances required in large amounts to supply energy; include protein, carbohydrate, and fat.
292
Micronutrients
Vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients. These are nonenergy yielding nutrients that have important regulatory functions in metabolic pathways.
293
Vitamins
Group of organic compounds required in small quantities in the diet to support growth and metabolic processes.
294
Minerals
Inorganic, natural substances, some of which are essential in human nutrition. There are two kinds of minerals: major minerals (aka, macrominerals) and trace minerals.
295
Protein
Amino acids linked by peptide bonds; the building blocks of body tissues.
296
Peptide bond
A chemical bond that connects two amino acids.
296
Protein turnover
A process in which the body breaks down existing proteins and recycles the component amino acids for incorporation into new proteins or other nitrogen-containing compounds.
297
Complete protein
A protein source that provides all essential amino acids.
298
Omnivorous diet
A diet that consists of both animals and plants.
298
Incomplete protein
A protein that lacks one or more of the amino acids required to build cells.
299
Mutual supplementation
Combination of two incomplete protein sources that together provide all of the essential amino acids.
300
Protein quality
Refers to the amino acid profile and the digestibility of a protein source.
301
Low biological value (LBV) proteins
Foods missing one or more of the essential amino acids.
302
High biological value (HBV) proteins
Foods containing all the essential amino acids.
303
Protein efficiency ratio (PER)
A measure of assessing proteins, based on the amount of weight gained by a test subject divided by the amount of intake of a protein food.
304
Biological value (BV)
A reference amount used to describe the extent to which the amino acids in a protein source are absorbed.
305
Protein digestibility– corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS)
A measure for evaluating a protein source based on the composition of amino acids and its digestibility.
306
Net protein utilization (NPU)
The ratio of amino acid mass turned into proteins compared to the total amino acid mass consumed in the diet.
307
Enterocyte
Intestinal cells that absorb nutrients.
308
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
The recommended amount of a nutrient that meets the needs of most healthy individuals within specific age and gender groups.
309
Negative energy balance
When calorie intake is lower than the number of calories expended.
310
Acceptable macronutrient distribution range (AMDR)
Ranges of intake for nutrients that are estimated to meet the needs of 97–98% of the population and that are associated with a reduced risk of chronic disease. AMDRs are established by the National Academy of Medicine.
311
Carbohydrates
Compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules that include simple sugars, complex carbohydrates, glycogen, and fiber.
312
Simple sugars
Include the monosaccharides and disaccharides; easily absorbed into the bloodstream.
313
Monosaccharides
Simplest form of carbohydrate; single sugar molecules (e.g., glucose).
314
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides joined together to form a simple sugar. The three disaccharides of nutritional importance include lactose, sucrose, and maltose.
315
Polysaccharides
A type of carbohydrate composed of long chains of glucose units; starch and glycogen are examples of polysaccharides.
316
Starch
Storage form of carbohydrate in plants.
317
Fiber
An indigestible carbohydrate present in plant foods, such as fruit, vegetables, and legumes.
318
Adipose tissue
An alternative term for fat, used primarily to store energy.
319
Complex carbohydrates
Polysaccharides; long chains of simple sugars. Examples include whole grains, legumes, and vegetables.
320
Glycemic index (GI)
Number (0–100) assigned to a food source that represents the rise in blood sugar after consuming the food.
321
Glycemic load (GL)
Similar to glycemic index but takes into account the amount of food (carbohydrate) eaten.
322
Muscle protein synthesis
Process by which new muscle proteins are formed and a muscle grows or repairs at the molecular level.
323
Lipids
Group of fats/fatty acids and their derivatives, including triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols.
323
Triglycerides
The chemical or substrate form in which most fat exists in food as well as in the body.
324
Phospholipids
Type of lipid (fat) comprised of glycerol, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group.
325
Sterols
A group of lipids with a ringlike structure. Cholesterol is a type of sterol.
326
Unsaturated fats
Fatty acids with one or more points of unsaturation (double bond) in their chemical structure.
327
Saturated fat
A type of triglyceride; chemical structure has no double bonds (points of unsaturation); usually solid at room temperature. Examples: butter, lard, whole milk, beef, processed meats, and tropical oils.
328
Pancreatic enzymes
Digestive enzymes produced by the body to help digest fats, starches, and proteins.
329
Lingual lipase
An enzyme in saliva that begins the process of lipid digestion in the mouth.
330
Lipase
Enzyme that digests lipids.
331
Chylomicrons
Molecules of fat that contain triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, fat-soluble vitamins, and protein. They are formed by intestinal cells after the digestion of lipid-containing foods.
332
Lipoprotein
A group of soluble proteins that combine with and transport fat or other lipids in the blood plasma.
333
Lipoprotein lipase (LPL)
An enzyme that breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids.
334
Metabolites
The formation of a substance required for metabolism.
335
What is the optimal ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids in the diet?
About 4:1
336
Major minerals
Minerals present in the body in larger amounts.
337
Trace minerals
Minerals present in small amounts in the body. They include iron, zinc, copper, selenium, iodine, manganese, chromium, fluoride, and molybdenum.
338
Heat exhaustion
A condition that occurs when the body becomes overheated. It can occur from dehydration in a hot climate, and symptoms include heavy sweating, rapid pulse, low blood pressure, nausea, dizziness, and muscle cramps.
339
Heatstroke
A condition that can develop if heat exhaustion is not treated quickly. Heatstroke symptoms include headache, fever, confusion and disorientation, and flushed skin. Heatstroke is a medical emergency and can be fatal if not quickly treated.
340
Sports drink
Drink with a combination of carbohydrate and/or electrolytes used for rehydration and carbohydrate replenishment during physical activity; may be isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic.
341
Electrolytes
Minerals that have an electrical charge to help transmit nerve impulses throughout the body, such as sodium, potassium, and chloride.
342
Hypotonic
A solution with a lower solute load/concentration than body fluids.
343
Isotonic
A solution with a similar solute load/concentration as body fluids.
344
Hypertonic
A solution with a higher solute load/concentration than body fluids.
345
Which of the following is a fat-soluble vitamin?
Vitamin K
346
Endocrine (hormonal) disorders
When the body produces too little or too much of an endocrine hormone.
346
Added sugars
Sugars that are not naturally found in food but have been added to a food product.
347
Satiating
Satisfying; feeling of fullness.
348
Peptide YY
Called peptide tyrosine and is a peptide that is released in the colon during feeding.
349
Ghrelin
The hunger hormone that stimulates appetite.
350
Cushing's syndrome
A hormone disorder that causes abnormally high levels of cortisol in the body.
351
Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)
A hormone disorder that occurs in women of childbearing age that causes irregular periods, excess levels of the male hormone androgen, small cysts on the outer edges of the ovaries, and obesity.
352
Adaptive thermogenesis
Metabolic adaptations and changes in energy expenditure as a result of changes in energy intake.
353
Percent daily value (%DV)
A reference value on the nutrition label that indicates what percentage of the recommended daily value for a nutrient is met by the specified serving size of a food product, based on a 2,000-calorie diet.
354
Percent reference intake (% RI)
Used on food labels in the United Kingdom and the European Union. It is a reference value that indicates what percentage of the recommend amount of a nutrient is met by the specified amount (100 g or 100 mL) of the food product.
355
For most consumers, which of the following are the two most informative features of a food label?
The nutrition facts label and the ingredients list
356
Dietary supplement
A product (other than tobacco) intended to supplement the diet that bears or contains one or more of the following dietary ingredients: vitamin; mineral; herb or other botanical; amino acid; substance used by man to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake; or concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract, or combination of any previously described ingredient.
356
Hypertrophy
Enlargement of an organ or tissue; in the context of fitness, it is often used to describe the enlargement of skeletal muscle.
357
Essential nutrient
Must be obtained in the diet, as the body is incapable of producing the nutrient on its own.
358
Toxicity
When too much of a vitamin or mineral accumulates within the body, resulting in illness or other symptoms.
359
Tolerable upper limit
The greatest quantity of a vitamin or mineral that may be consumed in a day without risk of an adverse health effect.
360
Adverse effect
Any unfavorable medical occurrence associated with the use of a medication, medical intervention, or dietary supplement.
361
Stimulant
An agent that increases physiologic or metabolic activity. Common stimulants include caffeine and nicotine.
361
Creatine
Molecule made from amino acids and used as a dietary supplement to facilitate adenosine triphosphate regeneration for improved training capacity, strength, power, and muscle mass.
362
Banned
A dietary supplement that may be prohibited from use in a specific sport or sport league. These supplements may not be illegal or prohibited at all times during the year.
363
Anabolic steroid
Compound made from testosterone or another hormone that acts on hormone receptors to produce increases in muscle size or strength.
364
Active ingredient
Any component of a dietary supplement included for the purpose of causing a physiologic effect; displayed on the main body of the supplement facts panel.
365
Other ingredient
Any component of a dietary supplement included for taste, bulk, or as a preservative; displayed beneath the main body of the supplement facts panel.
366
Supplement facts panel
Portion of a dietary supplement’s label that displays the active ingredients, other ingredients, serving size, number of servings, quantity of ingredients, and the percent daily value.
367
Health supplement
A dietary supplement used to improve a component of well-being.
368
Performance supplement
A dietary supplement that may enhance performance or body composition; may also be referred to as an ergogenic aid.
369
Biologically active
The form in which a vitamin must be to exert an effect within the body.
370
Biologically inactive
Any form of vitamin that cannot exert its effect within the body.
371
Beta-carotene
The red-orange pigment found in vegetables and fruits that is converted to vitamin A in the body.
372
Lactose intolerance
A sensitivity to lactose (milk sugar) typically resulting in gastrointestinal distress.
373
Irritable bowel syndrome
Gastrointestinal discomfort, sometimes severe, triggered by certain foods but is not a food allergy.
374
Osteoporosis
A condition of reduced bone mineral density, which increases risk of bone fracture.
375
Rickets
A bone weakness disease caused by vitamin D deficiency.
376
Heart arrhythmias
Irregular heartbeat.
377
Platelet aggregation
An accumulation of blood cells prior to a clot.
378
Immunodeficiency
A weakened immune system.
379
Peripheral neuropathy
Nerve damage not occurring in the brain or spinal cord.
380
Skeletal myopathy
Muscle degeneration
381
Scurvy
A disease resulting from insufficient vitamin C and characterized by spontaneous bleeding (usually of the gums), anemia, swelling, weakened joints, and loss of teeth.
382
Pellagra
A niacin or tryptophan deficiency that leads to a skin rash (dermatitis), digestive disorders (diarrhea), and mood or cognitive decline (dementia).
382
Beriberi
A thiamine deficiency that can result in inflammation or degeneration of the heart and nerves, peripheral neuropathy, and impaired motor function.
383
Anorexia
A loss of appetite or the conscious decision to avoid eating, often leading to dangerously low body weight and/or malnourishment
384
Anemia
A condition of poor iron status.
385
Dermatitis
Inflammation of the skin, rashes, excessive dryness, and/or blistering.
386
Spina bifida
A birth defect, and type of neural tube defect, when the spine and spinal cord do not form properly.
387
Amenorrheic
Absence of menstruation.
388
Hypercalcemia
Excess blood calcium levels.
388
Lacto-ovo vegetarian
A vegetarian diet that also includes dairy and eggs.
388
Osteopenia
Lower than normal bone density and a precursor to osteoporosis.
389
Ovo-vegetarian
A vegetarian diet that also includes eggs.
390
Heme
A type of iron found in animal foods.
391
Nonheme
A type of iron found in plant foods.
392
Hemochromatosis
A disease in which the body absorbs too much iron from consumed foods.
393
Omega-3
The polyunsaturated fats, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).
394
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
A type of omega-3 fatty acid found in the flesh of cold-water fish, such as tuna, mackerel, salmon, and herring.
395
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
A type of omega-3 fatty acid that is found in seafood, such as fish and fish oils.
396
Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)
One type of omega-3 fatty acid found in seeds and oils, such as walnuts and flaxseed, and many common vegetable oils.
397
Triglycerides
The chemical or substrate form in which most fat exists in food as well as in the body
398
Ergogenic aid
A dietary supplement that may enhance performance or body composition; it may also be referred to as a performance supplement.
399
Phosphagen
High-energy molecule that releases energy when its bonds are broken.
400
Creatine monohydrate
The most common, and likely most effective, form of creatine available as a dietary supplement.
400
Loading
Practice of using large doses of a supplement to saturate muscle tissues or other body stores prior to resorting to a lesser, maintenance dose.
401
Endogenous
Produced or synthesized within an organism.
402
Adrenaline
Hormone, also known as epinephrine, that excites bodily processes, increasing alertness and cell metabolism.
403
Caffeine anhydrous
A highly concentrated caffeine powder made from the seeds and leaves of coffee plants.
404
DMAA
Dimethylamylamine; a stimulant and amphetamine once legal for use as a dietary supplement.
404
Ephedra
A plant-sourced alkaloid with metabolism-enhancing effects. It is an illegal supplement in the United States and the European Union.
405
Testosterone
A hormone producing secondary male sex characteristics.
405
Serious adverse effect
Any adverse effect that results in any life-threatening situation, inpatient hospitalization, persistent incapacity of a person’s ability to conduct a normal life, a congenital anomaly, reproductive harm, or death.
406
Hormone precursor
A hormone used to create another hormone or hormone-like agent.
407
Gynecomastia
A condition in males characterized by breast tissue growth.
