Self-Regulation (Midterm #2)

Question 1

Defining the Self

Answer 1

The self is both the “me” and the “I”. The self: your social identity and. your inner processes that enable you to operate your body successfully in society. The self in dynamic in that it is always in flux dealing with new situations, learning, and adapting.

Question 2

Self-Regulation

Answer 2

The self’s ability to alter its own responses, including thoughts, emotions, impulses, and behaviours based on standards. Standards: ideas about how something should or shouldn’t be. “Self-regulation” is often used interchangeably with “self-control”.

Question 3

Self-control Dilemma

Answer 3

Conflict between an immediate urge / desire vs. a higher order standard/goal (i.e. temptation). Research suggests that people spend about 5-6 hours per day resisting desires and urges. Good self-regulation often involves successfully resolving self-control dilemmas (i.e. over-riding the immediate urge in favour of the standard/goal).

Question 4

Mischel’s Marshmallow Test (Mischel et al., 1988)

Answer 4

One of the first measures of self-regulation, specifically testing children’s ability to deal gratification. Study showed that: Delaying gratification is difficult. Successful delay of gratification in children depended on the implementation of self-regulation strategies: Cognitive strategies, like imagining the marshmallow as something else rather than focusing on how yummy it is. Distraction. Not looking at the marshmallow.

Question 5

Follow-up on Marshmallow Test (Mischel et al., 1988; Shoda et al., 1990)

Answer 5

Mischel and colleagues used children’s ability to delay gratification at age 4 to predict outcomes at age 14-15. Children who were better at delaying gratification at age 4: Did better academically. Had higher SAT scores (delay of gratification was a better predictor of SAT scores than intelligence at age 4). Showed better social skills. Suggests that better self-regulation is associated with better outcomes in adolescence.

Question 6

New Zealand Study (Moffitt et al., 2011)

Answer 6

Followed a sample of 1000 children from birth to age 32: Measured self-control in children ages 5-6 using observational measures. Assessed physical health, finances, and criminal records at age 32.

Question 7

New Zealand Study (Moffitt et al., 2011) - Results

Answer 7

Children with poorer self-control had worse outcomes as adults, controlling for intelligence and SES background. Controlling for intelligence and SES children with poorer self-control had worse health and more financial problems. Controlling for intelligence and SES, children with poorer self-control were more likely to be single parents and more likely to be convicted of a crime.

Question 8

New Zealand Study (Moffitt et al., 2011) - Implications

Answer 8

Self-regulation is difficult but research suggests that it leads to many positive outcomes. Overall, suggest that good self-regulation is one of the keys to a successful life

Question 9

TOTE Model of Self-Regulation (Carver & Schemer, 1981)

Answer 9

Feedback loop model: 1. Standard/Goal: Identify what is the desired end state of self-regulation. 2. Test: Monitor level of discrepancy between the current state and the standard. 3. Operate: Control/adjust behaviour into the desired direction. 4. Test: Result of “operate” serves an input for another test. 5. Exit: Occurs if current state is in line with desired standard.

Question 10

Process of Good Self-Regulation

Answer 10

TOTE model highlights that there are 3 main components to good self-regulation:
1. Standards
2. Monitoring (test)
3. Willpower / capacity for change (operate)
Good self-regulation involves the efficient operation of all 3 of these. Difficulties with any one of these 3 components results in difficulties with self-regulation.

Question 11

Expectancy-Value Theory

Answer 11

How likely are we to achieve a standard/goal depends: Expectancy: whether we expect that we can accomplish the goal if we attempt it. Value: how much we value the goal / find it worth doing (4 factors that influence value). We are most likely to achieve standards that are high expectancy + high value (associated with higher motivation).

Question 12

Expectancy

Answer 12

More likely to accomplish a goal if we believe that it is achievable. Highlights importance of setting realistic goals.

Question 13

Value - Factors that Foster Motivation

Answer 13

1. Importance: how important do you feel it is to do well on the goal? Influenced by how central a goal is to self-concept.
2. Intrinsic value: To what extent do you want to do the goal for its inherent satisfaction?
3. Utility: How useful do you find the goal for your life? What’s the benefit? Often related to how useful a specific task is for the pursuit of other, higher-order goals.
4. Cost: What does the goal cost you? Time? Money? Boredom? What other things could you be doing? Procrastination is often due to a goal being costly.

Question 14

Relationship between Expectancy and Value

Answer 14

In theory, expectancy and value are separate dimensions: High value, but low expectancy = hopeless goal. Low value, but high expectancy = easy, but boring goal. But, in reality, highly positively correlated, but negatively correlated with cost: suggests that they track one another.

Question 15

Expectancy and Value Reinforce Each Other

Answer 15

Expect to do well –> Value task more –> Do the taks more –> Improve at task –> Repeat

Question 16

Implications of expectancy and value relationship

Answer 16

To foster good self-regulation, set good goals. “Good” goals/standards are ones that are: Achievable and realistic, valuable to you (or find a way to frame it as valuable to you). Let go of goals that are costly and don’t feel valuable (important, intrinsic, or useful) to you.

Question 17

Factors that Interfere with Setting Good Goals

Answer 17

1. Lack of self-knowledge:
   –> Interferes with setting realistic standards (issue with expectancy)
   –> Lack of clarity on what standards/goals are important and intrinsically motivating (issue with value)
2. Perfectionism
   –> Associated with tendency to set unrealistic goal (issue with expectancy)
3. Self-control dilemma
   –> Increases cost of goal (issue with value)
   Each of these increase the chance of failing at a goal.

Question 18

Process of Good Self-Regulation

Answer 18

TOTE model highlights that there are 3 main components to good self-regulation: Standards, Monitoring (test), Willpower / capacity for change (operate).

Question 19

Self-Awareness

Answer 19

The capacity to direct attention to oneself (self-focused attention) and engage in thoughts about oneself.

Question 20

Function of Self-Awareness

Answer 20

Self-awareness, unlike directing attention to other objects/people, automatically leads to a state of comparing the self against salient standards (i.e. self-awareness automatically triggers self-evaluation). As a result, increasing self-awareness often leads to behaving in a way consistent with salient standards.

Question 21

Evidence that Self-Awareness Leads to Better Behaviour

Answer 21

The presence of a mirror stimulates self-awareness. People use more first-person pronouns when sitting in front of a mirror than when not sitting in front of a mirror.

Question 22

Halloween Study (Beaman et al., 1979)

Answer 22

Study: Does lack of self-awareness lead to more misbehaviour? Method: Halloween trick-or-treaters (all children) were told to take only one candy but were left alone with the opportunity to take more. There was a mirror in front of the bucket full of candy for some kids, and no mirror for others. Results: Children in the mirror condition were more likely to obey the instructions.

Question 23

Evidence that Self-Awareness Leads to Better Behaviour

Answer 23

The presence of a mirror stimulates self-awareness: People use more first-person pronouns when sitting in front of a mirror than when not. The presence (vs. absence) of a mirror leads people to: Work faster and harder on a taks when instructed to do so, behave in more moral ways, behave less aggressively, behave more consistently with previously stated personal values. Suggests that failure to behave in ways consistent with a standard may be due to lack of self-awareness.

Question 24

Evidence that Low Self-Awareness Leads to Worse Behaviour

Answer 24

Alcohol reduces self-awareness: when participants are given alcohol, they use fewer first-person pronouns than participants who consumed a non-alcoholic drink. In lab settings, participants that are given alcohol (vs. non-alcohol drink) tend to: Behave more recklessly, spend more money, behave more aggressively. Suggests that poor behaviour may be due to lack of self-awareness.

Question 25

Implications of self-awareness and behaviour

Answer 25

Self-awareness is critical for self-regulation: The process of comparing the self against a standard makes behaviour change possible. Very difficult to regulate something without closely monitoring it. Suggests that if you want to achieve a goal, monitor your progress and foster self-awareness.

Question 26

Ego Depletion Theory

Answer 26

Self-control/willpower is a limited and general mental resource. After exerting effort on a task that requires self-control, self-control is impaired such that people will do worse on another task requiring self-control, even if the tasks are unrelated.

Question 27

General Ego Depletion Study Methodology

Answer 27

Participants perform 2 separate, independent tasks that both require self-control/willpower. Tasks are performed one after another.

Question 28

Ego Depletion After Suppressing Emotion Study (Muraven et al., 1998)

Answer 28

Study: Does emotion relation lead to poorer physical stamina? Method: Participants completed a baseline handgrip endurance measure. Watched a sad movie. Experimental manipulation: Increase emotion: Let the movie affect you and express your emotions on your face as much as possible. Decrease emotion: Avoid letting the movie affect you and express as little emotion on your face as possible. No emotion control: No instructions. Handgrip endurance measured again.

Question 29

Ego Depletion After Suppressing Emotion Study (Muraven et al., 1998) - Results

Answer 29

Evidence for ego depletion effect. Participants who had to alter their emotional state had decreased handgrip endurance compared to people who did not have to control emotions, because they had already used up some of their willpower in regulating their emotions.

Question 30

Evidence for Ego Depletion

Answer 30

Examples of ego depletion reducing performance on second self-control tasks (e.g. suppressing forbidden thoughts leads to giving up more quickly on unsolvable anagrams). Evidence that ego depletion increases impulsive, disinhibited behaviour (e.g. eating more junkfood). Meta-analysis of 600 studies suggests that these findings are robust and well replicated.

Question 31

Moderation by Automaticity (Automatic vs Controlled)

Answer 31

Mental processes are either automatic or controlled. Automatic: require few cognitive resources and occur outside of conscious awareness, common for familiar/highly practiced tasks (e.g. tying your shoes, driving a familiar route). Controlled: require active, conscious attention and effort, involved in learning new skills or complex situations (e.g. playing a new musical instrument, solving a complex math problem). Ego depletion affects controlled processes, but not automatic ones (e.g. vocabulary performance (automatic) remains intact after ego depletion but logical reasoning (controlled) is impaired.

Question 32

Moderation by Motivation

Answer 32

Ego depletion can be overcome if people are given an important incentive to do well on the 2nd task (E.g. told that their performance will help others or paid based on performance on 2nd task, but usually show even more depleting after this 2nd task). Suggests that ego depletion effects reflect conservation of willpower, not a complete absence of willpower (people are managing a limited energy supply by holding back in the present).

Question 33

Implications of self-control/willpower and ego depletion

Answer 33

Self-control/willpower is costly in the short erm. Willpower is a general and limited supply: All types of self-control draw form this one supply. People tend to conserve their willpower unless highly motivated in the moment to expel it. Ego depletion explains why people may fail to sometimes achieve their standards/goals.

Question 34

Controversy

Answer 34

Some research have argued that the ego depletion effect doesn't exist or that the effect is very small if it does exist: 2014 meta-analysis of 198 studies concluded that the size of ego depletion effect is small and not sig. different from 0. 2021 multi-lab replication study (3531 participants) of 1-2 ego depletion studies found no reliable effect of ego depletion. But... another 2021 multi-site replication conducted in 12 labs (1775 participants) showed a small, but significant effect: over 600 studies have been published supporting ego depletion effects.

Question 35

Controversy - Whats going on?

Answer 35

1. Publication bias for positive results: leads to only "successful" studies being published resulting in the inflation of an effect. 2. There probably is an effect (intuitive and lots of findings) but have to figure out under what circumstances it exists. 3. Reliance on lab studies which may not reflect what's going on in the real world

Question 36

Trait Self-Control

Answer 36

People vary in trait self-control. Consistently better able to successfully deal with self-control dilemmas.

Question 37

Positive Effects of Trait Self-Control

Answer 37

Meta-analysis of 93 studies shows that higher trait self-control is associated with: Better performance at school and work; Sustaining healthy relationships; Less binge-eating; Higher overall psychological well-being.

Question 38

Paradox of Trait Self-Control

Answer 38

We tend to think that people high on trait self-control are good at effortfully resisting temptation / have more willpower: when they encounter a self-control dilemma, expert willpower to inhibit undesirable urge and choose to act in accordance with goal. BUT, in everyday life, people high on trait self-control experience fewer self-control dilemmas than low trait self-control people: Report fewer experiences of temptation in everyday life; Suggests that they're hardly using effortful self-control.

Question 39

Why do High Trait Self-Control Experience Less Temptation?

Answer 39

1. Better at setting goals that are intrinsically rewarding (E.g. actually enjoy activities that many struggle with like eating healthy, exercising, studying). 2. Set-up and follow routines and habits (E.g. consistent exercise routine, consistent study schedule) 3. Structured their lives in such a way that they don't experience temptation (E.g. make a point of not walking by a bakery on the way to school). 4. Identify self-control dilemmas (temptation) earlier.

Question 40

Identifying Self-Control Dilemmas Study (Gillebaart et al., 2016)

Answer 40

How do high trait self-control people react to self-control dilemmas? Method: Participants presented with pictures of food on a computer. Instructed to click "positive" when presented wit healthy food and "negative" when presented with unhealthy food. Measured: Trait self-control. Reaction time (RT) to select an answer. Implicit self-control dilemma (Mouse trajectory from the bottom of the screen to select an answer. Intensity of dilemma = degree of "pull" in direction of answer not selected. Also assessed when the "peak pull" occurred.) Explicit self-control dilemma ("How conflicted do you feel about your answer?").

Question 41

Identifying Self-Control Dilemmas Study (Gillebaart et al., 2016) - Results

Answer 41

Higher trait self control... Predicted weaker feelings of conflict (explicit self-control dilemma). BUT not related to average degree of "pull": suggests that high and low trait self-control people experience same amount of temptation on an unconscious level. Predicted earlier "peak pull": suggests that high trait self-control detected self-control dilemma earlier. Predicted faster RT for correctly classifying food (healthy = positive, unhealthy = negative): suggests that resolved self-control dilemma faster.

Question 42

Effortless Self-Control

Answer 42

Together, suggests that high self-control people are detecting self-control dilemmas earlier which allows them to deal with in a faster and more efficient way at an unconscious level. So good at this that they don't consciously experience the temptation.

Question 43

Implications of Trait Self-Control Research

Answer 43

People that have good self-control are exercising this ability effortlessly by relying on automatic processes: Habits and routines, reducing exposure to temptation, earlier temptation detection. Implies that if you want to improve your chances of completing a goal, make your behaviour as automatic as possible.

Question 44

Implementation Intentions

Answer 44

Very specific plan about how you will achieve a goal in a particular situation. Link a situation with a specific action: "When situation X arises, I will perform response Y". Part of the reason why they're effective: solve problems of goals being to vague, and increase commitment by focusing on one method of achieving a goal.

Question 45

Implementation Intentions: Don't put your eggs in more than one basket

Answer 45

Having too many ways to complete a goal reduces commitment to any one particular option making you less likely to complete the goal.

Question 46

implementation Intentions and Achieving Goals Study (Gollwitzer & Brandstatter, 1997)

Answer 46

Do implementation intentions help people achieve goals? Method: Participants were instructed to write a report about how they spent Christmas Eve that was due on December 26th. Experimental manipulation: Implementation intentions: Think about when and where you will write report. Control: Simply asked to write report. Who completed report? Results: Implementation intentions group was more likely to complete goal.

Question 47

Implementation Intentions vs. Motivation Boost Study (Milne et al., 2022)

Answer 47

Method: Recruited people who wanted to exercise more. Participants tracked how often they exercised for 2 weeks. Three experimental groups: 1. Control: Track how often you exercise. 2. Motivation: Track how often you exercise + read about benefits of exercise. 3. Implementation intention: Track how often you exercise + read about benefits of exercise + set implementation intention. who exercised at least once per week?

Question 48

Implementation Intentions vs. Motivation Boost Study (Milne et al., 2022) - Results

Answer 48

No benefit of increased motivation intervention. Implementation intentions doubled the rate of exercise: Suggests that when we don't reach goals, not because of lack of motivation or lack of monitoring, but because lack of specific plan.

Question 49

Beneficial Effects of Implementation Intentions

Answer 49

Implementation intentions facilitate goal achievement, such as: Exercising more, eating a healthy diet, writing a CV, managing anger...etc

Question 50

Moderating Role of Goal Difficulty Study (Gollwitzer & Brandstatter, 1997)

Answer 50

Method: Participants identified personal projects they intended to achieve during Christmas break. Experimental manipulation: Easy goal. Difficult goal. Assessed implementation intentions. Results: Implementation intentions were useful for completing difficult goals, less relevant for completing easy goals.

Question 51

Why are implementation Intentions Helpful?

Answer 51

1. Heightened accessibility of situational cues ("when") --> Improves ability to detect the situational cue relevant to our goal. 2. Formation of a strong mental Lin between the situation cue and the planned response --> Consequently, automates action initiation.

Question 52

Implications of implementation intentions

Answer 52

Implementation intentions show that conscious planning can make goal pursuit more automatic over time: Remove need for a conscious decision to pursue a goal at the relevant time. Intended action is executed more effortlessly, rather than relying on effortful self-control.

Question 53

Auto-Motive Model

Answer 53

Goal pursuit is not always deliberate, goals can be activated when pursued automatically, without conscious awareness. 1. Learned associations: people form associations between situations, goals, and actions based on repeated past experiences. 2. Automatic goal activation and pursuit: Once these associations are established, encountering the situation can automatically trigger the goal and its associated action, such that the person is pursuing the goal outside of conscious awareness.

Question 54

Auto-Motive Model Examples

Answer 54

1. <-->Goal: Go downtown <-->Action: Take Orange Line --> Berri-UQAM <--> Situation: Metro Station <-->Repeat 2. <--> Goal: Be productive <--> Action: answer emails <--> Situation: Sit at desk <--> Repeat

Question 55

Auto-Motive Model vs. Implementation Intentions

Answer 55

Auto-Motive Model: Situation-goal-action mental links created unconsciously via learned associations. Person is not necessarily aware the goal is being pursued. Implementation Intentions: Situation-goal-action mental links created consciously via forming "if-then" plans. Person is aware they set up the goal pursuit.

Question 56

Interpersonal Goals Examples

Answer 56

1. <-->Goal: wanted to be liked <--> Action: Make jokes <--> Social setting <--> repeat 2. <--> Goal: Want to be seen as competent <--> Action: Be serious and work hard<--> Colleague <--> Repeat

Question 57

Study 1: Unconscious Interpersonal Goals (Fitzsimons & Bargh, 2003)

Answer 57

What kind of goals do people pursue in different relationships? The most common goal with classmates is a self-enhancement goal: they want to be seen positively (less likely to pursue this goal with romantic partners or friends). Wanted to have fun with friends. Wanted to make their mom proud (but not with friends or romantic partner).

Question 58

Study 2: Automatic Activation of Goals (Fitzsimons & Bargh, 2003)

Answer 58

Does thinking about a specific relationship automatically trigger interpersonal goals usually pursued in that relationship? Method: Randomly assigned to 1 of 3 priming conditions: Form a vivid picture in our mind and write about: mother, best friend, bedroom (control). Part 2: Read about "Mark" and form impression.

Question 59

Study 2: Automatic Activation of Goals (Fitzsimons & Bargh, 2003) - "Mark"

Answer 59

"Mark is just entering his second year of college. In his first year, he did very well in some classes but not as well in others. Although he missed some morning classes, overallhe had very good attendance. His parents are both doctors, and he is registered in pre-med, but he hasn’t really decided if that is what he wants to do." How motivated is Mark to succeed in school?

Question 60

Study 2: Automatic Activation of Goals (Fitzsimons & Bargh, 2003) - Hypothesis

Answer 60

If thinking about their mom they will see mark as more motivated to succeed (vs. thinking about friend). The goal of wanting to make mom proud will be more accessible and thus attributed to Mark.

Question 61

Study 2: Automatic Activation of Goals (Fitzsimons & Bargh, 2003) - Results

Answer 61

Thinking about mother increased accessibility of participants' own goal with mother (i.e., wanting to make mom proud) which they then projected onto Mark. Evidence that relationship-specific goals can be automatically activated by just thinking about that person.

Question 62

Implications of Unconscious Interpersonal Goals

Answer 62

Relationships partners can unconsciously activate interpersonal goals which are then pursued unconsciously. Relationships have the power to influence our motivations and behaviours, even when the relationship partner is not physically present.