Semantics

Question 1

verifies the logical connectivity among the given premises and the conclusion. It does not focus on the truthfulness of the premises and the conclusion; verifies the logical connectivity between the premises and the conclusion without focusing on their truthfulness

Answer 1

Logical condition

Question 2

verifies the actual truth or falsity of the given premise and the conclusion; verifies the actual truth or falsity of the given premises and the conclusion

Answer 2

Truth condition

Question 3

 Any true inference from a true preposition.
 Logical relationship between two propositions such that the truth of the first proposition p guarantees the truth of the second preposition q also The falsity of q, guarantees the falsity of p

Answer 3

Entailment

Question 4

is a semantic relationship between two propositions such that if and only if p is true then q is true too.

Answer 4

Entailment

Question 5

It occurs when words have more than one meaning as commonly defined and understood. In simple words, keywords in the sentence may be read to mean different things.

Answer 5

Lexical Ambiguity

Question 6

– It is a grammatical construct that results from difficulty of applying universal grammatical laws to sentence structure. To simply put, words are arranged in ways that produce different meanings

Answer 6

Syntactical Ambiguity

Question 7

It is a composite ambiguity containing elements of both lexical and syntactical ambiguity. It occurs when words or phrases are used multiple times in a sentence but with different meanings each time it is used.

Answer 7

Inflective Ambiguity

Question 8

mutual entailment of two propositions which can logically be expressed by a conjunction. P entails q and q entails p.

Answer 8

Synonym

Question 9

If one proposition asserts the opposite of another in terms of entailment, p entails not q.

Answer 9

Contradiction

Question 10

A standard entailment; a relationship between two propositions. P could entail q but q does not entail p. This entailment involves propositions that are in a hyponymy relationship. This hyponymy could include hierarchies such as color hierarchies.

Answer 10

inclusion

Question 11

If the meaning of NP is a member of the meaning of VP, then S is TRUE, otherwise, it is FALSE
Example: Jack swims

Answer 11

Semantic rule 1

Question 12

The meaning of [VP V NP] is the set of individuals X such that X is the first member of any pair in the meaning of V whose second member is the meaning of NP
Example: Jack kissed Laura

Answer 12

Semantic rule 2

Question 13

refers to speaker’s feeling towards ongoing context

Example: You’re ridiculous!

Answer 13

Affective meaning

Question 14

common grouping of words that appear together frequently and convey meaning through association
Example: Emma is pretty – pretty is often used for women

Answer 14

Collocative meaning

Question 15

to give a semantic representation of a statement that is suitable.
Example: Johnny is a child – meaning Johnny is literally a kid

Answer 15

Conceptual meaning

Question 16

when a term has a multiple meanings depending on the audience
Example: Johnny is a child – might mean Johnny is an adult who acts like a child.

Answer 16

Connotative meaning

Question 17

a single word is associated with several senses or meanings

Example: “gay” could mean happy or gay as in men who like men

Answer 17

reflective meaning

Question 18

meaning of words based on societal factors

Example: in Europe, they call coke as pop and soda in australia

Answer 18

Social meaning

Question 19

how speaker conveys the message to the audience through word choice, word order, and emphasis

Answer 19

Thematic meaning

Question 20

a word or phrase with two or more meaning that can be misunderstood

Answer 20

Equivocation

Question 21

words that gain meaning by comparison

Answer 21

relative language

Question 22

– a general or vague language that represents ideas or concepts that have no physical references

Answer 22

Abstraction language

Question 23

a mistaken assumption that people or things are unchanging and consistent

Answer 23

Static evaluation

Question 24

abnormality profile of the linguistic items in terms of combination and interaction of elements of language in different context that may create ambiguity and connotative meaning.
Example: my toothbrush is pregnant

Answer 24

Anomaly

Question 25

– directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. | Example: Laughter is the best medicine

Answer 25

Types of metaphor

Question 26

one that compares two unlike things using the basic construction X is Y. ( All the world’s a stage )

Answer 26

Standard metaphor

Question 27

– compares two things that are not alike without actually mentioning one of those things. ( a woman barked a warning at her child – comparing a woman to a dog without mentioning a dog )

Answer 27

implied metaphor

Question 28

Often seen within advertisements ( a hydroflask advertisement shows a plastic water bottle image implying that their product is the same )

Answer 28

Visual metaphor

Question 29

an author’s use of a single metaphor or analogy at length through multiple linked tenors ( the flames of the fire shot up faster that a trio of lightning bolts – meaning a fire broke out ).

Answer 29

Extended metaphor

Question 30

phrase that was once a lively figure of speech but no longer carries its original meaning (aftermath meant after the mowing before)

Answer 30

Dead metaphor

Question 31

linking of two or more disparate element which can result in an unintentionally comic effect. ( If we want to get ahead we’ll have to iron out the remaining bottlenecks

Answer 31

Mixed metaphor

Question 32

unique collection of a language’s sayings and phrases | Example: You can’t judge a book by its cover

Answer 32

Idioms

Question 33

idioms whose original meaning is lost to the extent that there is no possible way to analyze phrase logically Example: It’s raining cats and dogs (It’s raining heavily)

Answer 33

Pure Idioms

Question 34

involve two parts that work together in contrast | Example: night and day, black and white

Answer 34

Binomia;l Idioms

Question 35

partial idiom containing a literal and non-literal part | Example: Storm brewing in his eyes

Answer 35

partial idiom

Question 36

idioms that contain prepositional verbs plus an adverb or a preposition to create non-literal meaning. Example: Put up with

Answer 36

Prepositional idioms

Question 37

idioms that provide universal truths or sage advice | Example: An apple a day keeps the doctor away

Answer 37

Proverbs

Question 38

– used to soften a message that might otherwise be too harsh or politically incorrect Example: Big-boned (fat), Correctional facility (prison)

Answer 38

Euphemisms

Question 39

term that has been so overused that it is considered intellectually lazy, not funny, unoriginal, or stereotyping when used. Example: Don’t judge a book by its cover

Answer 39

cliches

Question 40

is defined as its relations to other expressions in the language system. Thus, there are words that have a sense, but no referents in the real word. Example: Every house has got a main bedroom The president of the United States

Answer 40

sense

Question 41

``` is the relation between the linguistic expression and the entity in the real word to which it refers. Example: He is my brother Tom is in the class The bird is beautiful ```

Answer 41

reference

Question 42

Ogden and Richards) – things mean what they stand for (the cat is in a mat)

Answer 42

referential Theory of Meaning

Question 43

John Locke) – meaning attached to the words can be separated from the word themselves. (grass = warm weather)

Answer 43

Ideational theory of meaning

Question 44

B.F. Skinner) – The meaning of an expression, as uttered, is either (1) the behavioral stimulus, (2) the behavioral response, or (3) a combination of both. (the meaning of FIRE! Could vary depending on the situation)

Answer 44

Behavioristic theory of meaning

Question 45

describes the meanings of words and sentence in a particular symbol system

Answer 45

Semantic theory of word meaning

Question 46

attempts to define the fact that cause natural language utterances to have semantic qualities. a. Mentalist Theories b. The Gricean Program c. Meaning, Belief Convention

Answer 46

Foundational theory of word meaning

Question 47

 Relations between item in the lexicon

Answer 47

lexical relations

Question 48

a list of the words in a language along with salient information about each lexical item, also called a lexeme.

Answer 48

lexicon

Question 49

– the association of one word with two or more distinct meanings, a word or phrase with multiple meanings.

Answer 49

polysemy

Question 50

the first meaning is the primary meaning and the latter meanings are called derived meaning. (the front of the head; primary meaning, the surface of a thing; derived meaning)

Answer 50

diachronic approach

Question 51

coexistence of several meaning of the same word in a particular period of time (gay: homosexual – central meaning & happy – secondary meaning)

Answer 51

synchronic approach

Question 52

two or more words having the same spelling but have different meanings

Answer 52

homonymy

Question 53

words having the same meaning and spelling but different meaning (lie: means untrue lie: means to lie down to rest)

Answer 53

perfect homonyms

Question 54

words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning (bow: bow down bow: device used for shooting arrows)

Answer 54

homographs

Question 55

words identical only in sound but different in spelling in meaning. (son-sun right-write)

Answer 55

Homophones

Question 56

have the same spelling but different pronunciation and meaning

Answer 56

homography

Question 57

words that have opposing meanings

Answer 57

antonymy

Question 58

words having different sound but has the same meaning

Answer 58

synonymy

Question 59

denotes a constituent part or a member of something (finger, hand)

Answer 59

meronymy

Question 60

defines the relationship between a term denoting the whole and a term denoting a part of the whole (tree is a holonym of bark, trunk, and limb), the opposite of meronymy

Answer 60

holonymy

Question 61

– inclusion between a hyponym and a hypernym or superordinate (red is a color: red is a hyponym and color is a hypernym)

Answer 61

hyponymy

Question 62

the member or a set of members of a category that best represents the category as a whole (sparrow is a good example of birds, penguins are not)

Answer 62

prototype

Question 63

new name given for an object or concept to differentiate the original version of it to a more recent version (pen pal-friend irl landline-phone)

Answer 63

retronymy

Question 64

the study of individual words and their relationships to each other. Binary feature (+,-) are used to signify word meaning.

Answer 64

lexical semantics

Question 65

smallest units of meaning in a word

Answer 65

semantic features

Question 66

the meaning that dictionaries are designed to describe

Answer 66

conceptual meaning

Question 67

connection that specific word brings to use (illness, pain)

Answer 67

associative meaning

Question 68

used to refer to the lexical representation of argument-taking lexical items

Answer 68

argument structure

Question 69

any expression that serves to complete the meaning of a verb. Participants in an event or situation. Ex: (John) kicked (the ball) John and the ball are the subject and object (semantic participants) of the verb kicked.

Answer 69

argument

Question 70

expresses something about the participants, usually actions (kick from example above) Ex: (John) kicked (the ball) John and the ball are the subject and object (semantic participants) of the verb kicked.

Answer 70

predicate

Question 71

θ-theory) – each argument receives a semantic role or incorporates a set of participant roles called theta roles.

Answer 71

Theta theory

Question 72

any small class of words used as substitutes for nouns.

Answer 72

pronoun

Question 73

– short word used as substitute for a person’s proper name.

Answer 73

personal pronoun

Question 74

used to point to something specific (THOSE students)

Answer 74

demonstrative pronoun

Question 75

used to ask questions (I wonder WHO will reach the top?)

Answer 75

Interrogative pronouns

Question 76

a term that exposes and connects a relying clause (who, whom, what, which, and that) to an independent clause to answer specific questions. (The person who phoned me last night was my love of my life).

Answer 76

relative pronouns

Question 77

does not specify to whom or what it refers. (Someone ate the last slice of pizza)

Answer 77

Indefinite pronouns

Question 78

– accompanied by the adverb, adjective, pronoun or a noun to which it refers, as long as that antecedent is within the same clause (You’re going to have to drive yourself today)

Answer 78

Reflexive pronouns

Question 79

used to emphasize the sentence’s subject or antecedent (I myself will lead the community.

Answer 79

Intensive pronouns

Question 80

– can be explored from three aspects: deictic, co-text, and collocation

Answer 80

Linguistic context

Question 81

a word or a phrase (this, that, those, now, yesterday, then, here) that refers to the time, place, or a situation in which the speaker is speaking

Answer 81

deictic

Question 82

– language that surrounds the item in question and tells us what it means (I wish that dog stops barking, the tree has silver bark)

Answer 82

co-text

Question 83

two or more words that are commonly used together (make tea, do homework)

Answer 83

collocation

Question 84

influences what is socially acceptable and how the message is received.

Answer 84

situational contexts

Question 85

– refers to what is happening, the nature of social action that is taking place

Answer 85

field

Question 86

refers to who is taking part, to their status and roles

Answer 86

tenor

Question 87

refers to the role the participants are expecting the language to do for them

Answer 87

mode

Question 88

determined by the context of the sentence utilized. It is something the speaker suggests with an utterance even though it is not precisely expressed.

Answer 88

Implicatures

Question 89

– indirect or implicit act that is meant by a speaker’s utterance that is not part of what is explicitly said. Example: A: Is that Scotch over there? B: Help yourself

Answer 89

Conversational implicature

Question 90

– inferences which are worked out while drawing totally in the specific context of the utterance. Example: Leila: Has your boss gone crazy? Mary: Let’s go get some coffee Mary noticed that her boss was at the back of Leila, indicating that they must change the topic

Answer 90

particularized conversational implicature

Question 91

no special background knowledge of the context of utterance is required in order to make the necessary inferences. Example: A: Did you invite Bela and Cath? B: I invited Bella

Answer 91

generalized conversational implicature

Question 92

given rise by the use of certain scales of value (all, most, few, some, not all, possible)

Answer 92

scalar implicatures

Question 93

can trigger generalized conversational implicatures concerning the possessor of the indefinite noun phrase. Example: “I walked into a house” Implicature: The house was not my house.

Answer 93

Indefinite implicatures

Question 94

associated with specific words and result in additional conveyed meanings when those words are used. Example: “Even Ken knows it’s unethical” Entails: Ken knows it’s unethical Conventionally implicates: Ken was the least likely to know it was unethical

Answer 94

Convesntional implicatures

Question 95

when one tries to be as informative as one possibly can, not more not less.

Answer 95

maxim of quantity

Question 96

one tries to be truthful and does not give information that is false or that is not supported by evidence

Answer 96

maxim of quality

Question 97

requires the speaker and listener to be always relevant on the topic

Answer 97

maxim of relation

Question 98

requires speaker to avoid obscurities of expression and ambiguity, brief and orderly.

Answer 98

maxim of manner

Question 99

when speaker openly decides to violate the maxim expecting that the receiver will understand an implied message.

Answer 99

flouting

Question 100

occurs when speaker fails to observe the maxim, although she/he has no intention of generating an implicature (missing information that suggests meaning. Occurs because of nervousness, drunkenness, excitement, and disability.

Answer 100

Infringing

Question 101

happens when the person is indicating unwillingness to cooperate in the way the maxim requires.

Answer 101

opting out

Question 102

– no expectation on the part of any participant that one or several maxims should be observed

Answer 102

suspending

Question 103

an utterance that serves a function in communication.

Answer 103

speech acts

Question 104

the actual act of uttering (it is so dark in this room, the box is heavy) (by Austin)

Answer 104

locutionary

Question 105

performed via the communicative force of an utterance such a promising, apologizing, and offering (Yule, 1996). The act of doing something in saying something

Answer 105

illocutionary

Question 106

(Hufford and Heasley) – the act that is carried out by a speaker when making an utterance causes in certain effect on the hearer and the others.

Answer 106

perlocutionary

Question 107

speech acts that change the world via their utterance (Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife)

Answer 107

declaration

Question 108

– what speaker believes to be the case or not (the earth is flat)

Answer 108

representatives

Question 109

what speaker feels (I’m so sorry)

Answer 109

expressive

Question 110

speech acts that speaker uses to get someone else to do something

Answer 110

directive

Question 111

speech acts that speaker uses to commit themselves to some future action (I’ll be back)

Answer 111

commissive

Question 112

a direct relationship between a structure and a function (Will you go to the prom with me? Declarative, statement)

Answer 112

Direct speech act

Question 113

an indirect relationship between a structure and a function (Do you really have to stand in front of the TV? Interrogative, command)

Answer 113

indirect speech

Question 114

a set of utterance produced in a social situation involving participants who necessarily have a social relationship and have particular goals.

Answer 114

speech event

Question 115

a relationship between sentences or statements that can be defined, a belief that a speaker assumes when making an assertion

Answer 115

Presupposition

Question 116

a lexical item that generates presuppositions

Answer 116

Presupposition trigger

Question 117

assumption of the existence of the entities named by the speaker (the cat. Presupposition: cat exists)

Answer 117

existential presupposition

Question 118

something is true due to the presence of some as “know”, “realize”, “be glad”, “be sorry”, “regret”, “aware”, “odd”, and etc. (kim is aware that she cheats. presupposition: she cheats)

Answer 118

factive presupposition

Question 119

speaker can act as if another meaning will be understood (he managed to escape presupposition: he tried to escape)

Answer 119

lexical presuppositions

Question 120

associated with the use of certain structures (where did she buy the balloons? Presupposition: she bought the balloons)

Answer 120

structural presupposition

Question 121

– referred to something that is not true (I pretended to be happy presupposition: I am not happy)

Answer 121

Non-factive presupposition

Question 122

what is presupposed is not only untrue but is the opposite of what is true, or contrary to facts (if I weren’t sad I would be happy presupposition: I am sad)

Answer 122

counter factual presupposition