Semester 1 Pool Flashcards by Monica Olejniczak

According to the electrocardiogram (EKG), electrical systole is:

a. Onset of the QRS to the onset of the T wave

b. Onset of the T wave to the onset of the P wave

c. End of the T wave to the onset of the QRS complex

d. Onset of the QRS complex to the end of the T wave

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All of the following are components of a pulsed-wave Doppler of a pulmonary vein EXCEPT:

a. AR

b. S1

c. S2

d. E

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All of the following are considered a part of normal ventricular diastole EXCEPT:

a. Early passive filling

b. Atrial systole

c. Ventricular depolarization

d. Isovolumic relaxation

c. Ventricular depolarization

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All of the following are true statements concerning the left ventricle EXCEPT:

a. Top normal thickness is approximately 1.0 cm

b. Bullet shaped (truncated ellipsoid)

c. Heavily trabeculated

d. Contains two papillary muscle groups

c. Heavily trabeculated

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All of the following are true statements concerning the right ventricle EXCEPT:

a. Heavily trabeculated

b. Normal wall thickness is 0.3 to 0.5 cm

c. Most anterior positioned cardiac chamber

d. Normally forms the cardiac apex

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All of the following left ventricular wall segments may be evaluated in the parasternal long-axis view EXCEPT:

a. Basal anterior interventricular septum

b. Mid-anterior interventricular septum

c. Cardiac apex

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All of the following left ventricular wall segments may be evaluated in the parasternal short-axis of the left ventricle at the level of the papillary muscles EXCEPT:

a. Anterolateral

b. Anterior wall

c. Cardiac apex

d. Anterior interventricular septum

c. Cardiac apex

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All of the following structures are located in the right atrium EXCEPT:

a. Crista terminalis

b. Moderator band

c. Eustachian valve

d. Thebesian valve

b. Moderator band

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All of the following ventricular wall segments may be supplied by the right coronary artery EXCEPT:

a. Basal and mid-anterior interventricular septum

b. Basal and mid-inferolateral walls of the left ventricle

c. Lateral wall of the right ventricle

d. Basal and mid-inferior walls of the left ventricle

a. Basal and mid-anterior interventricular septum

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All of the following wall segments may be visualized in the apical four-chamber view EXCEPT:

a. Cardiac apex

b. Lateral wall of the right ventricle

c. Anterior interventricular septum

d. Anterolateral wall

c. Anterior interventricular septum

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All of the following wall segments may be visualized in the apical two-chamber view EXCEPT:

a. Right ventricular outflow tract

b. Cardiac apex

c. Anterior wall

d. Inferior wall

a. Right ventricular outflow tract

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Normal pressure values in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) for the listed cardiac chambers or great vessels include all of the following EXCEPT:

a. Aorta: 100 to 140 systolic; 3 to 12 end-diastolic

b. Pulmonary artery: 15 to 30 systolic; 2 to 12 mean diastolic

c. Right ventricle: 15 to 30 systolic; 2 to 8 diastolic

d. Right atrial pressure: 2 to 8 mean

a. Aorta: 100 to 140 systolic; 3 to 12 end-diastolic

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Structures of the mitral valve apparatus include all of the following EXCEPT:

a. Mitral valve annulus

b. Sinuses of Valsalva

c. Papillary muscles

d. Chordae tendineae

b. Sinuses of Valsalva

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The Chiari network is found in the:

a. Left atrium

b. Left ventricle

c. Right ventricle

d. Right atrium

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The boundaries of the functional left ventricular outflow tract are best described as extending from the:

a. Tips of the left ventricular papillary muscles to the edge of the anterior mitral valve leaflet

b. Anterior aortic valve annulus to the posterior aortic valve annulus

c. Free edge of the anterior mitral valve leaflet to the aortic valve annulus

d. Anteromedial position of the tricuspid valve annulus to the pulmonic valve annulus

c. Free edge of the anterior mitral valve leaflet to the aortic valve annulus

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The coronary sinus can be differentiated from the descending thoracic aorta with pulsed-wave Doppler because coronary sinus flow is predominantly diastolic while aortic flow is:

a. Predominantly systolic

b. Phasic

c. Predominantly diastolic

d. Equiphasic

a. Predominantly systolic

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The correct order for the branches of the transverse aorta (aortic arch) is:

a. Right brachiocephalic, left common carotid, left subclavian

b. Right brachiocephalic; left brachiocephalic, left common carotid

c. Left subclavian, right subclavian, left common carotid

d. Sinus of Valsalva, right innominate, left innominate

a. Right brachiocephalic, left common carotid, left subclavian

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The crista terminalis is found in the:

a. Right atrium

b. Right ventricle

c. Left ventricle

d. Left atrium

a. Right atrium

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The eustachian valve is found in the:

a. Left ventricle

b. Right ventricle

c. Right atrium

d. Left atrium

c. Right atrium

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The imaginary boundaries that define the mid-left ventricle are the:

a. Mitral annulus to the tip of the papillary muscles

b. Aortic annulus to the edge of the mitral valve

c. Base of the papillary muscles to the cardiac apex

d. Tip of the papillary muscles to the base of the papillary muscles

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The left anterior descending coronary artery supplies blood to all of the following EXCEPT:

a. Anterior wall of the left ventricle

b. Apical cap

c. Anterior interventricular septum

d. Inferior wall of the left ventricle

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The moderator band is always located in the:

a. Left ventricle

b. Right ventricle

c. Right atrium

d. Left atrium

b. Right ventricle

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The most likely explanation of main pulmonary artery dilatation is:

a. Bicuspid aortic valve

b. Carcinoid heart disease

c. Pulmonary hypertension

d. Truncus arteriosus

c. Pulmonary hypertension

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The name of the aortic segment located between the left subclavian artery and the insertion of the ligamentum arteriosum is the:

a. Sino-tubular junction

b. Aortic root

c. Aortic isthmus

d. Transverse aorta

c. Aortic isthmus

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The names of the two left ventricular papillary muscle groups are: a. Superior; inferior b. Anterolateral; posteromedial c. Medial; lateral d. Anterior; posterior

b. Anterolateral; posteromedial

The most common cause of chronic tricuspid regurgitation is: a. Tricuspid valve prolapse b. Pulmonary hypertension c. Ebstein's anomaly d. Rheumatic heart disease

b. Pulmonary hypertension

The most common etiology of pulmonary regurgitation is: a. Infective endocarditis b. Carcinoid heart disease c. Rheumatic heart disease d. Pulmonary hypertension

d. Pulmonary hypertension

The most common etiology of tricuspid stenosis is: a. Infective endocarditis b. Carcinoid heart disease c. Right atrial myxoma d. Rheumatic fever

d. Rheumatic fever

The murmur of tricuspid regurgitation is best described as a: a. Systolic ejection murmur heard best at the upper right sternal border b. Pansystolic murmur heard best at the cardiac apex with radiation to the axilla c. Pansystolic murmur heard best at the lower left sternal border d. Holodiastolic murmur heard best at the lower left sternal border

c. Pansystolic murmur heard best at the lower left sternal border

The pulmonary vein atrial reversal wave may be _______ in peak velocity and duration in a patient with severe acute aortic regurgitation. a. Decreased b.Reversed c. Increased d. Unchanged

c. Increased

The severity of aortic regurgitation may best be determined with color flow Doppler by all of the following methods EXCEPT: a. Determining the presence of holodiastolic flow reversal in the descending thoracic aorta and/or abdominal aorta b. Measuring the aortic regurgitation jet aliasing area in the parasternal long-axis view c. Comparing the aortic regurgitation jet width with the left ventricular outflow tract width in the parasternal long-axis view d. Measuring the vena contracta in the parasternal long-axis view

b. Measuring the aortic regurgitation jet aliasing area in the parasternal long-axis view

The typical two-dimensional echocardiographic findings in rheumatic tricuspid stenosis include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Right atrial dilatation b. Systolic bowing of the posterior tricuspid valve leaflet c. Diastolic doming of the anterior tricuspid valve leaflet d. Leaflet thickening especially at the leaflet tips and chordae tendineae

b. Systolic bowing of the posterior tricuspid valve leaflet

When two-dimensional evaluation of a systolic ejection murmur reveals a thickened aortic valve with normal systolic excursion and a peak velocity across the aortic valve of 1.5 m/s. The diagnosis is most likely aortic valve: a. Stenosis b.Regurgitation c. Sclerosis d. Prolapse

c. Sclerosis

A tricuspid regurgitation peak velocity of 3.0 m/s is obtained. This indicates: a. Severe tricuspid regurgitation b. Moderate tricuspid regurgitation c. Pulmonary hypertension d. Mild tricuspid regurgitation

c. Pulmonary hypertension

All of the following are cardiac Doppler findings for tricuspid valve stenosis EXCEPT: a. Increased tricuspid valve E wave velocity b. Increased mean pressure gradient c. Decreased tricuspid valve area d. Decreased pressure half-time

d. Decreased pressure half-time

All of the following are considered useful quantitative measurements to determine the severity of aortic regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Peak velocity of aortic regurgitation b. Effective regurgitant orifice c. Regurgitant volume d. Regurgitant fraction

a. Peak velocity of aortic regurgitation

All of the following are dilated in significant chronic tricuspid regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Right atrium b. Pulmonary veins c. Hepatic veins d. Inferior vena cava

b. Pulmonary veins

All of the following color flow Doppler findings indicate significant pulmonary regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Holodiastolic flow reversal in the main pulmonary artery b. Wide jet width at origin c. Peak velocity of < 1.0 m/s d. Jet width/Right ventricular outflow tract width > 70%

c. Peak velocity of < 1.0 m/s

An intracardiac pressure that may be determined from the continuous-wave Doppler tricuspid regurgitation signal is: a.Systolic pulmonary artery pressure b. Systemic vascular resistance c. Pulmonary artery end-diastolic pressure d. Mean pulmonary artery pressure

a.Systolic pulmonary artery pressure

Cardiac Doppler findings associated with significant chronic tricuspid regurgitation include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Systolic flow reversal in the pulmonary vein b. Concave late systolic configuration of the regurgitation signal c.Increased E velocity of the tricuspid valve d. Systolic flow reversal in the hepatic vein

a. Systolic flow reversal in the pulmonary vein

Causes of anatomic tricuspid regurgitation include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Carcinoid heart disease b. Ebstein's anomaly c. Infective endocarditis d. Pulmonary hypertension

d. Pulmonary hypertension

Echocardiographic evidence of severe acute aortic regurgitation includes all of the following EXCEPT: a. Premature opening of the mitral valve b. Premature closure of the mitral valve c. Reverse doming of the anterior mitral valve leaflet d. Premature opening of the aortic valve

a. Premature opening of the mitral valve

Holodiastolic flow reversal in the descending thoracic aorta and/or the abdominal aorta may be present in each of the following EXCEPT: a. Severe aortic regurgitation b. Patent ductus arteriosus c. Severe mitral regurgitation d. Aortopulmonary window

c. Severe mitral regurgitation

In a patient with severe acute aortic regurgitation the left ventricular end-diastolic pressure increases rapidly. This pathophysiology will affect which of the following? a. Closure of the pulmonary valve b. Left ventricular dimension c. Systolic ejection period d. Closure of the mitral valve

d. Closure of the mitral valve

In significant chronic aortic regurgitation, M-mode and two-dimensional evidence includes all of the following EXCEPT: a. Paradoxical interventricular septal motion b. Left ventricular dilatation c. Hyperkinesis of the posterior (inferolateral) wall of the left ventricle d. Hyperkinesis of the interventricular septum

a. Paradoxical interventricular septal motion

M-mode and two-dimensional echocardiographic findings for chronic tricuspid regurgitation include: a. Paradoxical interventricular septal motion b. Right ventricular hypertrophy c. Protected right ventricle d. Left ventricular volume overload

a. Paradoxical interventricular septal motion

Methods for determining the severity of tricuspid regurgitation with pulsed-wave Doppler include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Peak velocity of the tricuspid regurgitant jet b. Increased E wave velocity of the tricuspid valve c. Laminar flow of the tricuspid regurgitant jet d. Holosystolic flow reversal of the hepatic vein

a. Peak velocity of the tricuspid regurgitant jet

Possible echocardiographic and cardiac Doppler findings in a patient with carcinoid heart disease include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Tricuspid valve prolapse b. Pulmonary regurgitation c. Tricuspid stenosis d. Tricuspid regurgitation

a. Tricuspid valve prolapse

Posterior displacement of the aortic valve leaflet(s) into the left ventricle outflow tract during ventricular diastole is called aortic valve: a. Stenosis b. Perforation c. Sclerosis d. Prolapse

d. Prolapse

Premature closure of the mitral valve is associated with all of the following EXCEPT: a. Acute severe mitral regurgitation b. Loss of sinus rhythm c. Acute severe aortic regurgitation d. First-degree atrioventricular block

a. Acute severe mitral regurgitation

Severe aortic regurgitation is diagnosed with continuous-wave Doppler by all of the following criteria EXCEPT: a. Steep deceleration slope b. A maximum velocity of 4 m/s c. Increased jet density d. A pressure half-time of < 200 msec

b. A maximum velocity of 4 m/s

Significant chronic pulmonary regurgitation is associated with: a. Right ventricular hypertrophy b. Right ventricular volume overload c. Left ventricular volume overload d. Right atrial hypertrophy

b. Right ventricular volume overload

Signs of significant tricuspid regurgitation include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Jugular venous distention b. Right ventricular heart failure c. Hepatomegaly d. Pulsus paradoxus

d. Pulsus paradoxus

The M-mode finding that indicates severe acute aortic regurgitation is premature aortic valve: a. Opening b. Systolic flutter c. Closure d. Mid-systolic closure

a. Opening

The M-mode/two-dimensional echocardiography parameters that have been proposed as an indicator for aortic valve replacement in severe chronic aortic regurgitation are left ventricular: a. End-diastolic dimension ≥ 55 mm and fractional shortening ≤ 25% b. End-systolic dimension ≥ 55 mm and fractional shortening of ≤ 25% c. End-diastolic dimension ≤ 55 mm and fractional shortening of ≥ 25% d. End-diastolic dimension ≥ 70 mm and left atrial dimension ≥ 55 mm

b. End-systolic dimension ≥ 55 mm and fractional shortening of ≤ 25%

The continuous-wave Doppler signal of aortic regurgitation may be differentiated from the continuous-wave Doppler signal of mitral stenosis by the following guideline: a. The Doppler flow velocity pattern of mitral valve stenosis is laminar while the Doppler flow pattern of aortic regurgitation is turbulent. b. If the diastolic flow pattern commences before mitral valve opening then the signal is due to aortic regurgitation c. If the diastolic flow pattern commences after mitral valve opening then the signal is due to aortic regurgitation d. Cannot be differentiated by continuous-wave Doppler.

b. If the diastolic flow pattern commences before mitral valve opening then the signal is due to aortic regurgitation

The mitral valve pulsed-wave Doppler flow pattern often associated with severe acute aortic regurgitation is grade: a. Normal for age b. I (impaired relaxation) c. II (pseudonormal) d. III or IV (restrictive)

d. III or IV (restrictive)

All of the following represents possible etiologies for acute aortic regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Aortic valve sclerosis b. Infective endocarditis c. Trauma d. Aortic dissection

a. Aortic valve sclerosis

An effect of significant aortic valve stenosis on the left ventricle is: a. Eccentric left ventricular hypertrophy b. Concentric left ventricular hypertrophy c. Protected in significant aortic valve stenosis d. Asymmetrical septal hypertrophy

b. Concentric left ventricular hypertrophy

Aortic valve with reduced systolic excursion. On physical examination there was a crescendo-decrescendo systolic ejection murmur and a diastolic decrescendo murmur heard. The most likely diagnosis is aortic valve: a. Regurgitation b. Flail c. Stenosis and mitral valve prolapse d. Stenosis and regurgitation

d. Stenosis and regurgitation

Cardiac Doppler parameters used to assess the severity of valvular aortic stenosis include all the following EXCEPT: a. Aortic velocity ratio b. Aortic pressure half-time c. Mean pressure gradient d. Peak aortic valve velocity

b. Aortic pressure half-time

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging provides all of the following information in a patient with aortic regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Left ventricular volumes b. Effective regurgitant orifice c. Detailed resolution of the aortic valve d. Regurgitant volume

c. Detailed resolution of the aortic valve

In the parasternal long-axis view, severe aortic valve stenosis is defined as an aortic valve leaflet separation that measures: a. ≥ 14 mm b. ≤ 8 mm c. ≤ 12 mm d. ≤ 10 mm

b. ≤ 8 mm

Of the transvalvular pressure gradients that can be measured in the echocardiography laboratory, the most useful in examining aortic valve stenosis is probably: a. Peak instantaneous pressure gradient b. Peak-to-peak gradient c. Mean systolic gradient d. Mean diastolic gradient

c. Mean systolic gradient

Pathologies that may result in a left ventricular pressure overload include all the following EXCEPT: a. Valvular aortic stenosis b. Systemic hypertension c. Discrete subaortic stenosis d. Mitral valve stenosis

d. Mitral valve stenosis

Possible two-dimensional echocardiographic findings in significant aortic valve stenosis include all the following EXCEPT: a. Left ventricular hypertrophy b. Post-stenotic dilatation of the descending aorta c. Post-stenotic dilatation of the ascending aorta d. Aortic valve calcification

b. Post-stenotic dilatation of the descending aorta

Reverse diastolic doming of the anterior mitral valve leaflet is associated with: a. Severe aortic regurgitation b. Flail mitral valve c. Rheumatic mitral valve stenosis d. Papillary muscle dysfunction

a. Severe aortic regurgitation

Secondary echocardiographic findings associated with severe valvular aortic stenosis include all the following EXCEPT: a. Post-stenotic dilatation of the ascending aorta b. Left ventricular hypertrophy c. Right ventricular hypertrophy d. Decreased left ventricular systolic function (late in course)

c. Right ventricular hypertrophy

The Doppler maximum peak instantaneous pressure gradient in a patient with aortic stenosis is 100 mm Hg. The cardiac catheterization peak-to-peak pressure gradient will most likely be: a. Equal to 100 mm Hg b. Higher than 100 mm Hg c. Dependent upon respiration d. Lower than 100 mm Hg

d. Lower than 100 mm Hg

The LEAST common valve regurgitation found in normal patients is: a. Pulmonary regurgitation b. Mitral regurgitation c. Aortic regurgitation d. Tricuspid regurgitation

c. Aortic regurgitation

The aortic valve area considered severe aortic valve stenosis is: a. < 2 cm^2 b. < 1.5 cm^2 c. < 3 cm^2 d. ≤ 1.0 cm^2

d. ≤ 1.0 cm^2

The characteristic M-mode findings for aortic valve stenosis include all the following EXCEPT: a. A lack of systolic flutter of the aortic valve leaflets b. Reduced leaflet separation in systole c. Thickening of the aortic valve leaflets d. Diastolic flutter of the aortic valve leaflets

d. Diastolic flutter of the aortic valve leaflets

The characteristic feature of the murmur of chronic aortic regurgitation is a: a. Diastolic crescendo-decrescendo murmur heard best along the left upper sternal border b. Diastolic decrescendo murmur heard best along the left sternal border c. Harsh systolic ejection murmur heard best at the right upper sternal border d. Diastolic rumble following an opening snap

b. Diastolic decrescendo murmur heard best along the left sternal border

The echocardiographer may differentiate between the similar systolic flow patterns seen in coexisting severe aortic valve stenosis and mitral regurgitation by all the following EXCEPT a. Mitral diastolic filling profile should be present during recording of the mitral regurgitation, whereas no diastolic flow is observed in aortic valve stenosis. b. Since both are systolic flow patterns, it is not possible to separate mitral regurgitation from aortic valve stenosis. c. Mitral regurgitation flow always lasts until mitral valve opening, whereas aortic valve stenosis flow does not. d. Aortic ejection time is shorter that the mitral regurgitation time

b. Since both are systolic flow patterns, it is not possible to separate mitral regurgitation from aortic valve stenosis.

The hallmark M-mode finding for aortic regurgitation is: a. Chaotic diastolic flutter of the mitral valve b. Systolic flutter of the aortic valve c. Coarse diastolic flutter of the anterior mitral valve leaflet d. Fine diastolic flutter of the anterior mitral valve leaflet

d. Fine diastolic flutter of the anterior mitral valve leaflet

The most common etiology of chronic aortic regurgitation is: a. Marfan’s syndrome b. Trauma c. Dilatation of the aortic root and aortic annulus d. Infective endocarditis

c. Dilatation of the aortic root and aortic annulus

The murmur associated with severe aortic regurgitation is: a. Carvallo's b. Austin-Flint c. Graham-Steell d. Still's

b. Austin-Flint

The murmur of aortic stenosis is described as: a. Holosystolic murmur heard best at the cardiac apex b. Systolic ejection murmur heard best at the right upper sternal border c. Holodiastolic decrescendo murmur heard best at the right sternal border d. Diastolic rumble

b. Systolic ejection murmur heard best at the right upper sternal border

The onset of flow to peak aortic velocity continuous-wave Doppler tracing in severe valvular aortic stenosis is: a. Decreased b. Decreased with expiration c.Increased with inspiration d. Increased

d. Increased

The pulse that is characteristic of significant valvular aortic stenosis is: a. Pulsus parvus et tardus b. Pulsus alternans c. Pulsus paradoxus d. Pulsus bisferiens

a. Pulsus parvus et tardus

The severity of aortic valve stenosis may be underestimated if only the maximum velocity measurement is used in the following condition: a. Low cardiac output b. Anemia c. Significant aortic regurgitation d. Doppler intercept angle of 0°

a. Low cardiac output

The two-dimensional view which best visualizes systolic doming of the aortic valve leaflets is the: a. Subcostal short-axis view of the aortic valve b. Apical five-chamber view c. Parasternal short-axis view of the aortic valve d. Parasternal long-axis view

d. Parasternal long-axis view

Flail mitral valve can be differentiated from severe mitral valve prolapse on two-dimensional echocardiography because flail mitral valve leaflet demonstrates: a. Leaflet tip that points toward the left ventricle b. A thicker mitral valve c. Leaflet tip that points toward the left atrium d. Chronic mitral regurgitation

c. Leaflet tip that points toward the left atrium

In patients with severe acute mitral regurgitation, the continuous-wave Doppler peak velocity of the regurgitant jet is: a. Increased b. Dependent largely upon left ventricular global systolic function c. Unaffected d. Decreased

d. Decreased

In patients with significant mitral regurgitation, the continuous-wave Doppler tracing of the regurgitant lesion may demonstrate a(n): a. Jet area of < 20% b. Asymmetrical shape of the mitral regurgitation flow velocity spectral display c. Symmetrical shape of the mitral regurgitation flow velocity spectral display d. Jet duration of < 85 msec

b. Asymmetrical shape of the mitral regurgitation flow velocity spectral display

In patients with significant mitral regurgitation, the isovolumic relaxation time may be: a. Unaffected b. Decreased c. Increased d. Affected by respiration

b. Decreased

In patients with significant pure mitral regurgitation, the E velocity of the mitral valve pulsed-wave Doppler tracing is: a. Decreased b. Increased with inspiration c. Increased d. Unaffected

c. Increased

Mitral valve chordal rupture usually results in: a. Mitral regurgitation b. Pulmonary regurgitation c. Tricuspid regurgitation d. Aortic regurgitation

a. Mitral regurgitation

On M-mode and two-dimensional echocardiography dense echoes are noted posterior to normal mitral valve leaflets. The probable diagnosis is mitral valve: a. Aneurysm b. Papilloma c. Annular calcification d. Vegetation

c. Annular calcification

Quantitative approaches to determine the severity of mitral regurgitation include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Regurgitant fraction b. Regurgitant volume c. Effective regurgitant orifice d. Regurgitant jet area

d. Regurgitant jet area

Secondary causes of mitral valve prolapse include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Primary pulmonary hypertension b. Cardiac tamponade c. Atrial septal defect d. Bicuspid aortic valve

d. Bicuspid aortic valve

The associated auscultatory findings for mitral valve prolapse include: a. Friction rub b. Mid-systolic click c. Ejection click d. Pericardial knock

b. Mid-systolic click

The cardinal symptoms of valvular aortic stenosis include all the following EXCEPT: a. Anasarca b. Angina pectoris c. Congestive heart failure d. Syncope

a. Anasarca

The complications of mitral valve prolapse include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Significant mitral regurgitation b. Increased risk of infective endocarditis c. Valvular stenosis d. Mitral valve repair and replacement

c. Valvular stenosis

The effect significant mitral regurgitation has on the pulsed-wave Doppler tracing of the pulmonary veins may be described as: a. Unaffected b. S wave reverses, D wave increases c. S wave increases, D wave decreases d. S wave increases, D wave decreases

b. S wave reverses, D wave increases

The etiology of aortic valve stenosis includes all the following EXCEPT: a. Bacterial b. Degenerative c. Rheumatic d. Congenital

a. Bacterial

The gold standard two-dimensional echocardiographic view recommended to diagnose the presence of mitral valve prolapse is: a. Parasternal long-axis b. Apical four-chamber c. Parasternal short-axis of the mitral valve d. Subcostal five-chamber

a. Parasternal long-axis

The most common symptoms of mitral valve prolapse include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Palpitations b. Syncope c. Atypical chest pain d. Ascites

d. Ascites

The most likely etiology of aortic valve stenosis in a 47-year-old patient is: a. Endocarditis b. Degenerative c. Annular d. Congenital

d. Congenital

The peak mitral regurgitation velocity as determined with continuous-wave Doppler reflects the: a. Etiology of the mitral regurgitation b. Maximum pressure difference between the left atrium and left ventricle c. Direction of the regurgitant jet d. Severity of the mitral regurgitation

b. Maximum pressure difference between the left atrium and left ventricle

The term myxomatous degeneration is associated with mitral valve: a. Stenosis b. Flail c. Prolapse d. Vegetation

c. Prolapse

There is posterior mitral valve prolapse present. With color flow Doppler on, which direction will the mitral regurgitation jet be baffled? a. Inferior b. Cephalad c. Anterior d. Posterior

c. Anterior

Which of the following is most commonly associated with mitral valve prolapse? a. Left heart pressure overload b. Right heart pressure overload c. Right heart volume overload d. Left heart volume overload

d. Left heart volume overload

A Doppler mean pressure gradient of 18 mm Hg is calculated in a patient with valvular aortic stenosis. The severity of the aortic stenosis is: a. Mild b. Moderately severe c. Severe d. Moderate

a. Mild

All of the following all associated with significant chronic aortic regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Holosystolic murmur heard best at the cardiac apex b. Wide pulse pressure c. Congestive heart failure d. Angina pectoris

a. Holosystolic murmur heard best at the cardiac apex

All of the following are two-dimensional echocardiography findings in a patient with significant chronic aortic regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Left ventricular enlargement b. Hyperkinetic left ventricular wall motion c.left atrial enlargement d. Abnormal aortic valve or aortic root

c.left atrial enlargement

All of the following may be measured in the cardiac catheterization laboratory when evaluating aortic stenosis EXCEPT: a. Peak velocity b. Mean pressure gradient c. Peak-to-peak pressure gradient d. Maximum peak instantaneous pressure gradient

a. Peak velocity

Secondary echocardiographic/Doppler findings in patients with rheumatic mitral stenosis include all the following EXCEPT: a. Left ventricular dilatation b. Increase right heart dimensions c. Increased tricuspid regurgitant jet velocity d. Abnormal interventricular septal wall motion

a. Left ventricular dilatation

Signs and symptoms of mitral stenosis secondary to rheumatic heart disease include: a. Angina pectoris b. Vertigo c. Pulmonary hypertension d. Cyanosis

c. Pulmonary hypertension

Systolic bowing of the inter-atrial septum toward the right atrium throughout the cardiac cycle may be an indication of: a. Tricuspid atresia b. Mitral regurgitation c. Tricuspid regurgitation d. Tricuspid stenosis

b. Mitral regurgitation

The abnormal mitral valve pressure half-time for patients with mitral valve stenosis is: a. 60 to 90 msec b. 30 to 60 msec c. 0 to 30 msec d. 90 to 400 msec

d. 90 to 400 msec

The cardiac valves listed in decreasing order as they are affected by rheumatic heart disease are: a. Aortic, pulmonic, tricuspid, mitral b. Tricuspid, mitral, pulmonic, aortic c. Mitral, aortic, tricuspid, pulmonic d. Pulmonic, aortic, tricuspid, mitral

c. Mitral, aortic, tricuspid, pulmonic

The classic cardiac Doppler features of mitral valve stenosis include all the following EXCEPT: a. Increased E velocity b. Turbulent flow c. Increased pressure half-time d. Increased mitral valve area

d. Increased mitral valve area

The classic description of the murmur of chronic mitral regurgitation is: a. Diastolic decrescendo murmur heard best at the left sternal border b. Systolic ejection murmur heard best at the right upper sternal border c. Holosystolic murmur heard best at the apex radiating to the axilla d. Continuous machinery-like murmur

c. Holosystolic murmur heard best at the apex radiating to the axilla

The equation used in the cardiac catheterization laboratory to determine mitral valve area and aortic valve area is the: a. Gorlin b. Bernoulli c. Doppler d. Continuity

a. Gorlin

The most accurate method for determining the severity of mitral valve stenosis is: a. Performing planimetry of the mitral valve orifice by two-dimensional echocardiography b. Measuring the thickness of the mitral valve leaflets c. Measuring the E-F slope of the anterior mitral valve leaflet by M-mode c. Determining the maximum velocity across the mitral valve by pulsed-wave Doppler

a. Performing planimetry of the mitral valve orifice by two-dimensional echocardiography

The most common etiology of mitral stenosis in adults is: a. Congenital b. Severe mitral annular calcification c. Left atrial myxoma d.Rheumatic fever

d.Rheumatic fever

The most common presenting symptom of significant chronic mitral regurgitation is: a. Dyspnea b. Systemic embolization c. Ascites d. Hemoptysis

a. Dyspnea

The most likely heart sound to be heard in patients with significant chronic pure mitral regurgitation is: a. S3 b.Fixed split S2 c. Loud S1 d.Ejection click

a. S3

Two-dimensional echocardiographic examination reveals thin mobile mitral valve leaflet tips and a Doppler E velocity of 1.8 m/s with a pressure half-time of 180 msec in an elderly patient. The most likely diagnosis is: a. Moderate to severe mitral annular calcification b.Rheumatic mitral stenosis c. Abnormal relaxation of the left ventricle d. Aortic regurgitation

a. Moderate to severe mitral annular calcification

Two-dimensional echocardiographic findings for rheumatic mitral stenosis include all of the following EXCEPT a. Hockey-stick appearance of the anterior mitral valve leaflet b. Thickened mitral valve leaflets and subvalvular apparatus c. Reverse doming of the anterior mitral valve leaflet d. Increased left atrial dimension

c. Reverse doming of the anterior mitral valve leaflet

Typical echocardiographic findings in a patient with isolated rheumatic mitral stenosis include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Dilated left ventricle b. D-shaped left ventricle c. Left atrial thrombus d. Left atrial enlargement

a. Dilated left ventricle

A color flow Doppler method for semi-quantitating mitral regurgitation is regurgitant jet: a.Area b.Turbulence c.Height d.Length

a.Area

A common finding associated with a regurgitant murmur in the elderly is: a.Mitral annular calcification b.Aortic valve stenosis c.Mitral valve stenosis d.Mitral valve vegetation

a.Mitral annular calcification

A key word that is often used to describe the characteristics of the valve leaflets in mitral valve prolapse is: a.Dense b.Sclerotic c. Redundant d. Doming

c. Redundant

All of the following are associated with mitral valve prolapse EXCEPT: a.Mitral regurgitation b.Pulmonary atresia c. Aortic valve prolapse d. Tricuspid valve prolapse

b.Pulmonary atresia

All of the following are true statements concerning mitral regurgitation EXCEPT: a.Regurgitant jet area, vena contracta width and proximal isovelocity surface area are recommended when determining severity b. Severity of mitral regurgitation is not affected by afterload c. Mitral regurgitation may be acute, chronic or intermittent d. Mitral regurgitation may result in an increase in preload

b. Severity of mitral regurgitation is not affected by afterload

All of the following are useful color-flow Doppler techniques in the evaluation of mitral regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Jet area b. Vena contracta width c. PISA diameter d. Peak velocity

d. Peak velocity

An accepted method for determining the severity of mitral regurgitation by continuous-wave Doppler is spectral: a. Width b. Velocity c. Length d. Jet density

d. Jet density

Cardiac Doppler evidence of severe mitral regurgitation includes all of the following EXCEPT: a. Mitral valve E wave velocity < 1.0 m/sec b. Regurgitant jet area/left atrial area ratio > 40% c. Pulmonary vein systolic flow reversal d. Dense, triangular continuous-wave Doppler tracing

a. Mitral valve E wave velocity < 1.0 m/sec

Diastolic mitral regurgitation is associated with: a. Severe aortic regurgitation b. Mitral valve prolapse c. Flail mitral valve d. Severe tricuspid regurgitation

a. Severe aortic regurgitation

Echocardiographic characteristics of mitral valve prolapse include all of the following EXCEPT: a. Systolic bowing of the mitral valve leaflets towards the left atrium b. Increased mitral valve annulus diameter c. Thickened, redundant, myxomatous leaflets d. Diastolic doming of the mitral valve leaflets

d. Diastolic doming of the mitral valve leaflets

The pulsed-wave Doppler mitral valve peak E wave velocity is 100 cm/s. The lateral wall mitral annulus tissue Doppler imaging E' wave is 5 cm/s. The diastolic filling pressure is assumed to be: a. Increased b. Decreased c. Normal d. Dependent upon respiration

a. Increased

The simplified Bernoulli equation disregards all of the following factors EXCEPT: a. Flow acceleration b. Viscous friction c. Velocity at the site of obstruction d. Proximal velocity

c. Velocity at the site of obstruction

The stroke volume is 63 mL. The heart rate is 100 beats per minutes. The cardiac output is: a. 63000 Lpm b. 63 mL c. 6.3 bpm d. 6.3 Lpm

d. 6.3 Lpm

The top normal peak velocity for the aortic valve is: a. 2.0 m/s b. 0.7 m/s c. 1.7 m/s d. 0.9 m/s

c. 1.7 m/s

The tricuspid regurgitation peak velocity is 2.0 m/s. The right ventricular outflow tract velocity time integral is 20 cm. The pulmonary vascular resistance is: a. Equal to the peak velocity of the tricuspid regurgitation b. Normal c. Decreased d. Increased

b. Normal

The tricuspid regurgitation peak velocity is determined to be 3.2 m/s. The inferior vena cava is normal in dimension (< 1.7 cm) and collapsed with a sniff by more than 50%. The right ventricular systolic pressure and systolic pulmonary artery pressure is: a. 49 mm Hg b. 41 mm Hg c. 44 mm Hg d. 56 mm Hg

c. 44 mm Hg

The use of the continuity equation in patients with aortic stenosis is based on the premise that: a. Flow volume in the left ventricular outflow tract equals the flow volume across the aortic valve b. As the aortic stenosis progresses, V2 decreases c. As the aortic stenosis progresses, V1 increases d. Left ventricular outflow tract flow is greater than flow across the aortic valve

a. Flow volume in the left ventricular outflow tract equals the flow volume across the aortic valve

When evaluating valvular stenosis all of the following are useful Doppler parameters EXCEPT: a. Mean pressure gradient b. Chamber dimensions c. Peak velocity d. Peak instantaneous pressure gradient

b. Chamber dimensions

Which of the following represent the lengthened Bernoulli equation? a. CSA x VTI b. 4 x V2 2 – V1 2 c. 4 x V22 d.EDV-ESV

b. 4 x V2 2 – V1 2

With aortic valve stenosis and poor global left ventricular systolic function the severity of aortic stenosis by the Doppler pressure gradient may be: a. Overestimated b. Unpredictable c. Underestimated d. Unaffected

c. Underestimated

With aortic valve stenosis and significant aortic regurgitation the severity of the aortic stenosis by the Doppler pressure gradient may be: a. Underestimated b. Unpredictable c. Unaffected d.Overestimated

d.Overestimated

A Doppler mean pressure gradient across a stenotic mitral valve of 22 mm Hg is obtained. The severity of the mitral stenosis is: a. Moderate b. Mild c. Severe d. Moderately

c. Severe

A deceleration time of 800 msec was obtained by continuous-wave Doppler in a patient with rheumatic mitral valve stenosis. The pressure half-time is: a. 800 msec b.232 msec c. 220 msec d. 400 msec

b.232 msec

A strong indication for mitral stenosis on two-dimensional echocardiography is an anterior mitral valve leaflet that exhibits: a. Coarse, chaotic diastolic motion b. Systolic bowing c. Reverse doming d. Diastolic doming

d. Diastolic doming

All of the following are causes for chronic mitral regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Mitral annular calcification b. Rheumatic heart disease c. Cleft mitral valve d. Ruptured papillary muscle

d. Ruptured papillary muscle

All of the following are possible etiologies of anatomic mitral regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Dilated cardiomyopathy b. Mitral annular calcification c. Ruptured chordae tendineae d. Mitral valve prolapse

a. Dilated cardiomyopathy

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging provides all of the following information in the evaluation of mitral regurgitation EXCEPT: a. Regurgitant volume b. Left ventricular volumes c. Left ventricular mass d. Detailed visualization of the mitral valve apparatus

d. Detailed visualization of the mitral valve apparatus

Chronic significant mitral regurgitation may result in all of the following EXCEPT: a. Left ventricular volume overload pattern b. Mitral annular calcification c. Left atrial enlargement d. Left ventricular enlargement

b. Mitral annular calcification

Conditions that may lead to clinical symptoms that mimic those associated with rheumatic mitral stenosis include: a. Aortic stenosis b. Pericardial effusion c. Left atrial myxoma d.Ventricular septal defect

c. Left atrial myxoma

Congestive heart failure in a patient with significant chronic mitral regurgitation occurs because of increased pressure in the: a. Right ventricle b. Left ventricle c. Left atrium d. Aorta

c. Left atrium

Critical mitral valve stenosis is said to be present if the mitral valve area is reduced to: a. < 1.0 cm^2 b. 1.0 to 1.5 cm^2 c. 1.5 to 2.5 cm^2 d. 2.5 to 3.5 cm^2

a. < 1.0 cm^2

M-mode and two-dimensional findings associated with significant chronic mitral regurgitation include all of the following EXCEPT: a.Left ventricular enlargement b. Fine diastolic flutter of the mitral valve c. Left atrial enlargement d. Left ventricular volume overload pattern

b. Fine diastolic flutter of the mitral valve

Mitral stenosis is considered to be severe by all the following criteria EXCEPT: a. Mitral valve Doppler A wave peak velocity > 1.3 m/s b. Pressure half-time > 220 msec c. Mitral valve area ≤ 1.0 cm^2 d. Mean pressure gradient ≥ 10 mm Hg

a. Mitral valve Doppler A wave peak velocity > 1.3 m/s

Patients with mitral stenosis, left atrial enlargement and atrial fibrillation are at increased risk for the development of: a. Left atrial thrombus b. Left atrial myxoma c. Left ventricular dilatation d. Left ventricular thrombus

a. Left atrial thrombus

Possible signs and symptoms associated with acute severe mitral regurgitation include: a. Pulmonary edema b. Systemic embolization c. Hemoptysis d. Anasarca

a. Pulmonary edema

Predict the tissue Doppler imaging E/E' ratio in a patient with known pseudonormalization of the mitral valve inflow pattern. a. Decreased E'A' ratio b. Dependent upon respiration c. Increased E'/A' ratio d. Normal E'/A' ratio

a. Decreased E'A' ratio

Pressure recovery may explain discrepancies between the pressure gradient measurements acquired in the cardiac catheterization laboratory and the pressure gradient measurements acquired in the echocardiography laboratory (e.g., aortic stenosis, prosthetic aortic valve). Pressure recovery occurs at the: a. Turbulent region b. distal to the vena contracta and turbulent region c. Flow convergence region (PISA) d. Vena contracta

b. distal to the vena contracta and turbulent region

Pulmonary regurgitation as detected by Doppler in structurally normal hearts is: a. An abnormal finding b. A rare finding c. A common finding d. Dependent upon respiration

c. A common finding

Right ventricular systolic pressure may be calculated when the following condition is present: a. Pulmonary regurgitation b. Mitral regurgitation c. Aortic regurgitation d. Tricuspid regurgitation

d. Tricuspid regurgitation

The S' wave of the mitral valve annulus is determined to be 3 cm/s in peak velocity. This suggests: a. Dependent upon respiration b. Reduced global left ventricular systolic function c. Hyperdynamic global left ventricular systolic function d. Normal global left ventricular systolic function

b. Reduced global left ventricular systolic function

The blood pressure in a patient with a patent ductus arteriosus is 124/68 mm Hg. The peak velocity across the patent ductus arteriosus as determined by continuous-wave Doppler is 5 m/s. The systolic pulmonary artery pressure is: a. 24 mm Hg b. 34 mm Hg c. 100 mm Hg d. 124 mm Hg

a. 24 mm Hg

The blood pressure in a patient with a ventricular septal defect is 114/77 mm Hg. The peak velocity across the ventricular septal defect as determined with continuous-wave Doppler is 4 m/s. The right ventricular systolic pressure and systolic pulmonary artery pressure is: a. 55 mm Hg b. 50 mm Hg c. 114 mm Hg d. 64 mm Hg

b. 50 mm Hg

The blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg. The peak velocity of mitral regurgitation is 5 m/s. The left atrial pressure is: a. 100 mm Hg b. 20 mm Hg c. 120 mm Hg d. 5 mm Hg

b. 20 mm Hg

The continuous-wave Doppler maximum aortic regurgitation velocity reflects the: a. Maximum peak instantaneous diastolic pressure difference between the aorta and the left ventricle b. Mean systolic pressure gradient between the aorta and the left ventricle c. Mean diastolic pressure gradient between the aorta and left ventricle d. Maximum instantaneous systolic pressure gradient between the aorta and left ventricle

a. Maximum peak instantaneous diastolic pressure difference between the aorta and the left ventricle

The difference between the transmitted frequency and the reflected frequency is known as the: a. Doppler principle b. Doppler shift c. Bernoulli equation d. Gorlin equation

b. Doppler shift

The equation which relates the pressure drop across an area of narrowing is the: a. Continuity equation b. Bernoulli equation c. Doppler equation d. Velocity ratio equation

b. Bernoulli equation

The expected continuous-wave Doppler peak velocity of tricuspid regurgitation assuming normal intracardiac pressures is: a. 1.0 m/s b. 2.2 m/s c. 0.5 m/s d. 3.3 m/s

b. 2.2 m/s

The following data is obtained in a patient with a prosthetic mitral valve: left ventricular outflow tract diameter is 2.0 cm, the left ventricular outflow tract velocity time integral is 15 cm and the prosthetic mitral valve velocity time integral is 47 cm. The mitral valve area by the continuity equation is: a. 1.0 cm2 b. 2.0 cm2 c. 30 cm2 d. 3.14 cm2

a. 1.0 cm2

The following data is obtained in a patient with aortic stenosis: left ventricular outflow tract diameter is 2.0 cm, peak left ventricular outflow tract velocity integral is 20 cm, the aortic valve time velocity integral is 40 cm. The aortic valve area is: a. 0.3 cm2 b. 3.14 cm2 c. 0.75 cm2 d. 1.57 cm2

d. 1.57 cm2

The following data is obtained in a patient with aortic stenosis: left ventricular outflow tract velocity time integral is 20 cm and the aortic valve velocity time integral is 40 cm. The velocity ratio is: a. 20 b. 40 c. 0.5 d. 800

c. 0.5

The following data is obtained: left ventricular outflow tract diameter is 2.2 cm, left ventricular outflow tract peak systolic velocity is 1.1 m/s and the peak systolic aortic valve velocity is 5 m/s. The aortic valve area is: a. .83 cm2 b. 100 cm2 c. 2.14 cm2 d. 0.75 cm2

a. .83 cm2

The formula that is used to calculate the peak pressure gradient in coarctation of the aorta is: a. 4 (V2 2 – V1 2) b. 4 (V2 2) c. 220 ÷ PHT d. CSA x VTI

a. 4 (V2 2 – V1 2)

The formula used to estimate left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) from continuous-wave Doppler recording of aortic regurgitation is LVEDP is equal to: LVEDP, left ventricular end-diastolic pressure; BPs, systolic blood pressure; Vmax, maximum velocity of aortic regurgitation; AR, aortic regurgitation; BPd, diastolic blood pressure; EDV, end-diastolic velocity. a. BPd – 4 x EDV AR2 b. BPd – 4 x EDV AR c. BPd – Vmax AR d. BPs – Vmax AR

a. BPd – 4 x EDV AR2

The laminar core of a turbulent jet is called the: a. Vena contracta b. Relaminarization c. Turbulent region d. Flow convergence region (PISA)

a. Vena contracta

The left ventricular outflow tract diameter in early ventricular systole as measured in the parasternal long-axis is 2.0 cm. The left ventricular outflow tract time velocity integral is 20 cm. The Doppler stroke volume is: a. 3.14 cm b. 20 mL c. 63 mL d. 2 mL

c. 63 mL

he mitral valve area can be determined by Doppler with the following formula: a. 220 ÷ deceleration time b. Pressure half-time ÷ 220 c. Deceleration time ÷ pressure half-time d. 220 ÷ pressure half-time

d. 220 ÷ pressure half-time

The peak velocity across a patent foramen ovale (PFO) is determined to be 1.0 m/s. The right atrial pressure (RAP) is determined to be 5 mm Hg by examination of the characteristics of the inferior vena cava. The left atrial pressure (LAP) is equal to: a. 4 mm Hg b. 14 mm Hg c. 1 mm Hg d. 9 mm Hg

d. 9 mm Hg

The peak velocity of pulmonary regurgitation is determined to be 3 m/s. The RAP is 3 mmHg. The mean pulmonary artery pressure is: a. 3 mm Hg b. 44 mm Hg c. 39 mm Hg d. 9 mm Hg

c. 39 mm Hg

The pressure drop between two-chambers may be calculated by the formula: a. 4 x V2 2 b. Transmitted frequency – received frequency c. 220 ÷ pressure half-time d. CSA x VTI

a. 4 x V2 2

The pulmonary regurgitation end velocity is determined to be 2.0 m/s. The inferior vena cava is normal in dimension (< 1.7 cm) and collapses with a sniff by greater than 50%. The pulmonary artery end-diastolic pressure is equal to: a. 21 mm Hg b. 16 mm Hg c. 7 mm Hg d. 19 mm Hg

d. 19 mm Hg

The normal mitral valve area is: a. 4 to 6 cm2 b. 3 to 5 cm2 c. 3.5 to 4.5 cm2 d. 5 to 8 cm2

a. 4 to 6 cm2

The normal volume of clear serous fluid in the pericardial sac is: a. 200 to 500 mL b. 200 to 500 L c. 10 to 50 mL d. 20 to 50 mL

c. 10 to 50 mL

The outpouching behind each aortic valve leaflet is called the: a. Ductus arteriosus b. Sinuses of Valsalva c. Aortic isthmus d. Ligamentum arteriosum

b. Sinuses of Valsalva

The potential space behind the left atrium where pericardial effusion could accumulate is the: a. Sinus of Valsalva b. Transverse sinus c. Pleural potential space d. Oblique sinus

d. Oblique sinus

The section of the aorta that is located between the diaphragm and the iliac arteries is called the: a. Abdominal aorta b. Transverse aorta c. Descending thoracic aorta d. Aortic isthmus

a. Abdominal aorta

When should the left atrium be measured? a. Diastasis b. End systole c. Late diastole d. Early diastole

b. End systole

Which left ventricular wall segment is LEAST likely to be supplied by the circumflex coronary artery? a. Lateral wall of the cardiac apex b. Inferolateral wall of the left ventricle c. Anterolateral wall of the left ventricle d. Basal inferior wall of the left ventricle

d. Basal inferior wall of the left ventricle

Which two-dimensional view is recommended when measuring the right atrium? a. Parasternal short-axis of the aortic valve b. Subcostal four-chamber c. Parasternal right ventricular inflow tract d. Apical four-chamber

d. Apical four-chamber

A patient with known aortic stenosis presents for evaluation. The ejection fraction is 22%. The peak velocity across the aortic valve as determined by continuous-wave Doppler is 2.3 m/s. The peak instantaneous pressure gradient is 21 mm Hg. The mean pressure gradient is 14 mm Hg. The severity of the aortic stenosis is: a. Severe b.Requires more information c. Moderate d. Mild

b.Requires more information

A peak velocity of 2 m/s is obtained in a patient with rheumatic mitral stenosis. The peak (maximum) instantaneous pressure gradient is: a. 2 mm Hg b. 16 mm Hg c. 4 mm Hg d.26 mm Hg

b. 16 mm Hg

All of the following are simplified PISA methods for determining the severity of mitral regurgitation EXCEPT: PISA, proximal isovelocity surface area; ERO, effective regurgitant orifice; r, radius of PISA; RV, regurgitant volume a. ERO (cm2) = r2 ÷ 2 b. 220 ÷ pressure half-time c. RV (mL) = 2 x r2 x aliasing velocity (cm/s) d. ≥ 0.9 cm PISA radius that is holosystolic indicates significant mitral regurgitation

b. 220 ÷ pressure half-time