SEXUAL HEALTH Neoplastic Flashcards
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
Also called prostate gland enlargement — is a common condition as men get older. An enlarged prostate gland can cause uncomfortable urinary symptoms, such as blocking the flow of urine out of the bladder. It can also cause bladder, urinary tract or kidney problems.
SYMPTOMS: Frequent or urgent need to urinate.
Increased frequency of urination at night (nocturia)
Difficulty starting urination.
Weak urine stream or a stream that stops and starts.
Dribbling at the end of urination.
Inability to completely empty the bladder.
CAUSE:
Men with the following factors are more likely to develop benign prostatic hyperplasia: age 40 years and older. family history of benign prostatic hyperplasia. medical conditions such as obesity, heart and circulatory disease, and type 2 diabetes.
Studies show that diabetes, as well as heart disease and use of beta blockers, might increase the risk of BPH. Lifestyle. Obesity increases the risk of BPH, while exercise can lower your risk.
Breast Cancer
- Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (DCIS)
- Lobular Carcinoma in Situ (LCIS)
- Inflammatory
- Invasive
A disease in which cells in the breast grow out of control. There are different kinds of breast cancer. The kind of breast cancer depends on which cells in the breast turn into cancer. Breast cancer can begin in different parts of the breast.
SYMPTOMS: New lump in the breast or underarm (armpit).
Thickening or swelling of part of the breast.
Irritation or dimpling of breast skin.
Redness or flaky skin in the nipple area or the breast.
Pulling in of the nipple or pain in the nipple area.
CAUSE: Just like any cancer, breast cancer results from DNA mutations that instruct your cells to grow out of control. In this case, it targets cells in the breast tissue, and there’s no single thing that causes these DNA mutations
Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (DCIS)
Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is the presence of abnormal cells inside a milk duct in the breast. DCIS is considered the earliest form of breast cancer. DCIS is noninvasive, meaning it hasn’t spread out of the milk duct and has a low risk of becoming invasive.
SYMPTOMS: DCIS doesn’t typically have any signs or symptoms. However, DCIS can sometimes cause signs such as: A breast lump. Bloody nipple discharge.
CAUSE: DCIS forms when genetic mutations occur in the DNA of breast duct cells. The genetic mutations cause the cells to appear abnormal, but the cells don’t yet have the ability to break out of the breast duct. Researchers don’t know exactly what triggers the abnormal cell growth that leads to DCIS.
Lobular Carcinoma in Situ (LCIS)
Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS) is an uncommon condition in which abnormal cells form in the milk glands (lobules) in the breast. LCIS isn’t cancer. But being diagnosed with LCIS indicates that you have an increased risk of developing breast cancer.
SYMPTOMS: LCIS doesn’t cause signs or symptoms. Rather, your doctor might discover incidentally that you have LCIS — for instance, after a biopsy to assess a breast lump or an abnormal area found on a mammogram.
CAUSE: It’s not clear what causes LCIS . LCIS begins when cells in a milk-producing gland (lobule) of a breast develop genetic mutations that cause the cells to appear abnormal. The abnormal cells remain in the lobule and don’t extend into, or invade, nearby breast tissue.
Inflammatory Breast Cancer (IBC)
An uncommon and aggressive type of breast cancer. It can cause the breast to appear red and swollen, giving the appearance of inflammation. In the United States, diagnoses of IBC accounts for 1%–5% of all breast cancer cases.
Both women and men can develop IBC. Compared to other forms of breast cancer, IBC tends to strike younger women and is more common in Black women than White women. Men who are diagnosed with IBC are older on average than female patients. IBC is often mistaken for other conditions. It’s important to talk with a healthcare provider if you are experiencing symptoms.
SYMPTOMS: Redness and/or a rash on the skin: There may be areas of the breast that are pink, red, or bluish (like a bruise). This redness is usually fairly extensive and can cover one-third of the breast or more. The skin also may itch
Sudden increase in breast size (as much as a cup size in a few days)
Skin dimpling similar to an orange peel (called peau d’orange)
Breast heaviness (one side more than the other)
Hardness or burning sensations in the breast
Feeling that one breast is warmer than the other
Breast pain that is not related to your menstrual cycle
Nipple retraction or other nipple changes
Swollen lymph nodes under the arms or above the collarbone
CAUSE: Researchers aren’t sure what causes IBC specifically, but some risk factors have been identified, including:
Gender: Though IBC affects both women and men, women are more likely to be diagnosed with this type of breast cancer than men.
Age: IBC is more common in younger people (in their 40s or 50s).
Ethnicity: Black women are at a greater risk for developing IBC than White women.
Weight: People who are overweight or obese have a slightly increased risk of IBC, but it can impact people of average weight as well.
Invasive Breast Cancer
Invasive lobular carcinoma is a type of breast cancer that begins in the milk-producing glands (lobules) of the breast. Invasive cancer means the cancer cells have broken out of the lobule where they began and have the potential to spread to the lymph nodes and other areas of the body.
SYMPTOMS: Lump in the breast.
Thickening or redness of the skin of the breast.
Swelling or change in the shape of the breast.
Localized persistent breast pain.
Dimpling or retraction of the skin of the breast or the nipple.
Nipple discharge, other than breast milk.
CAUSE: Doctors know that invasive lobular carcinoma begins when cells in one or more milk-producing glands of the breast develop mutations in their DNA. The mutations lead to the inability to control cell growth, which results in the cells dividing and growing rapidly.
Breast Cancer Tumor Suppressor Genes
Inherited gene changes
For instance, the BRCA genes (BRCA1 and BRCA2) are tumor suppressor genes. When one of these genes changes, it no longer suppresses abnormal cell growth, and cancer is more likely to develop
Tumor suppressor genes are commonly lost or deleted in cancers, facilitating the initiation and progression of cancer through several biological events.
Breast Fibroadenoma
A solid breast lump. This breast lump is not cancer. A fibroadenoma happens most often between ages 15 and 35. But it can be found at any age in anyone who has periods A fibroadenoma can get bigger over time. It may be tender or cause soreness a few days before your period. A large fibroadenoma may hurt when you touch it. But most often, this type of breast lump causes no pain.
SYMPTOMS:
Round with distinct, smooth borders.
Easily moved.
Firm or rubbery.
CAUSE: The cause of fibroadenomas is not known. They might be related to hormones that control your periods. Less common types of fibroadenomas and related breast lumps may not act the same as typical fibroadenomas
Cervical Cancer
A cancer that starts in the cells of the cervix. The cervix is the lower, narrow end of the uterus (womb). The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina (birth canal). Cervical cancer usually develops slowly over time.
SYMPTOMS: Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, between periods or after menopause.
Watery, bloody vaginal discharge that may be heavy and have a foul odour.
Pelvic pain or pain during intercourse.
CAUSE: Almost all cervical cancers are caused by human papillomavirus (HPV), a common virus that can be passed from one person to another during sex. There are many types of HPV. Some HPV types can cause changes on a woman’s cervix that can lead to cervical cancer over time, while other types can cause genital or skin warts.
Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN)
A premalignant squamous lesion of the uterine cervix diagnosed by cervical biopsy and histologic examination. The goal of management is to prevent possible progression to cancer while avoiding overtreatment since lesions can spontaneously regress and treatment can have morbid effects.
Your Pap smear, or Pap test, results will determine whether or not you have cell abnormalities or lesions on your cervix known as squamous intraepithelial lesions, or SILs. In many cases, these lesions will clear away on their own as your body’s natural defenses destroy them. Other times, the cells may have spread already so further medical intervention may be necessary.
The cell sample findings from your Pap smear are categorized based on how far they have spread across your outer cervical lining, known as intraepithelial tissue, and based on your risk factors for human papillomavirus or HPV (the sexually transmitted infection that causes CIN) or cervical cancer.2
The signs will be categorized as follows:
Low-grade SIL (LSIL)
High-grade SIL (HSIL)
Possibility of cancer
Atypical glandular cells (AGUS)
Another way of categorizing CIN based on the same information collected from your Pap is by numbered grades (1–3) rather than scaled grades (low–high). Your doctor may use terms from either categorization method, so if you’re not sure what they’re referring to, simply ask for some clarification.
The three grade levels include:3
Low-grade neoplasia (CIN 1) involves about one-third of the thickness of the epithelium.
CIN 2 refers to abnormal changes in about one-third to two-thirds of the epithelial layer.
CIN 3 (the most severe form) affects more than two-thirds of the epithelium.
SYMPTOMS: CIN is usually thought of as asymptomatic (without symptoms). However, there is an association between CIN and bleeding after penetrative sex (known as postcoital bleeding, or PCB).
A 2019 limited-sample study conducted in Israel suggests that bleeding after sex may be a sign of the following:
Infection such as HPV (human papillomavirus) infection
CIN
Cervical cancer
CAUSE:
Cervical Polyps
Fingerlike growths on the lower part of the uterus that connects with the vagina ( cervix ). Cervical polyps are small fingerlike growths originating from the mucosal surface of the cervix. The small fragile growths hang from a stalk and protrude through the cervical opening.
SYMPTOMS: Cervical polyps usually cause no symptoms and are sometimes found during a smear test. However, some women may experience symptoms such as bleeding after sex, bleeding in between periods, bleeding after menopause or abnormal vaginal discharge. In most cases, cervical polyps are benign (not cancerous).
CAUSE: The exact cause of cervical polyps is not known. They may occur with:
An abnormal response to increased levels of the female hormone estrogen
Chronic inflammation
Clogged blood vessels in the cervix
Cervical polyps are common. They are often found in women over age 40 who have had many children. Polyps are rare in young women who have not started having their period (menstruation).
Cervical polyps are caused by: Chronic inflammation of your cervix. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), yeast infections or bacterial infections
Diffuse Cystic Mastopathy (Fibrocystic Breast Disease)
Fibrocystic change of the breast (also known as diffuse cystic mastopathy) is a benign alteration in the terminal ductal lobular unit of the breast with or without associated fibrosis. It is seen as a wide spectrum of altered morphology in the female breast from innocuous to those associated with the risk of carcinoma.
Fibrocystic breast changes lead to the development of fluid-filled round or oval sacs (cysts) and more prominent scar-like (fibrous) tissue, which can make breasts feel tender, lumpy or ropy. Fibrocystic breasts are composed of tissue that feels lumpy or ropelike in texture.
SYMPTOMS: Signs and symptoms of fibrocystic breasts may include: Breast lumps or areas of thickening that tend to blend into the surrounding breast tissue. Generalized breast pain or tenderness or discomfort that involves the upper outer part of the breast. Breast nodules or lumpy tissue change in size with the menstrual cycle.
CAUSE: The exact cause of fibrocystic breast changes isn’t known, but experts suspect that reproductive hormones — especially estrogen — play a role. Fluctuating hormone levels during the menstrual cycle can cause breast discomfort and areas of lumpy breast tissue that feel tender, sore and swollen
Endometrial Cancer
The most common type of uterine cancer, starts in the cells of the endometrium—the lining of the uterus that is built up and then shed each month in menstruating females who are not pregnant.
The disease is more common after menopause. It’s typically curable, and factors such as the stage and effect of hormones on the tumor can determine individual prognosis.
Endometrial cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the endometrium. The endometrium is the lining of the uterus, a hollow, muscular organ in a woman’s pelvis. The uterus is where a fetus grows.
SYMPTOMS: Bleeding or discharge not related to your periods (menstruation) — over 90 percent of women diagnosed with endometrial cancer have abnormal vaginal bleeding.
Postmenopausal bleeding.
Difficult or painful urination.
Pain during intercourse.
Pain and/or mass in the pelvic area.
CAUSE:
Endometrial cancer occurs most often after menopause. Obesity. Being obese increases your risk of endometrial cancer. This may occur because excess body fat alters your body’s balance of hormones
Endometrial Hyperplasia
A precancerous condition in which there is an irregular thickening of the uterine lining. This may cause uncomfortable symptoms for women, including heavy menstrual periods, postmenopausal bleeding, and anemia due to the excess bleeding.
SYMPTOMS: Heavier-than-normal menstrual periods.
Lengthier-than-normal menstrual periods.
Bleeding between menstrual periods.
Menstrual cycles that are shorter than 21 days.
Menstrual-type bleeding after menopause.
Anemia, in some instances, due to heavy menstrual bleeding.
CAUSE: Endometrial hyperplasia develops when a woman has an imbalance of estrogen and progestin. There are a number of reasons this can occur: Having irregular menstrual periods, being obese, or having polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) may interfere with ovulation, which reduces progestin exposure.
Galactocele
Also known as lactocele, or a lacteal cyst, is a rare benign retention cyst of the breast, defined as a milk-filled cyst. The term galactocele is derived from the Greek words ‘galatea,’ meaning milky white, and ‘-cele’ meaning pouch.
SYMPTOMS: Usually presents as a painless lump in the breast. These lumps form over a few weeks to months. The lesions can be uni- or bilateral, and may appear as single or multiple nodules.
CAUSE: Galactoceles are caused by any kind of blockage in the ducts of the breast during or just after stopping lactation. While breast carcinomas may sometimes cause a blockage which results in a galactocele, these lesions are due to more routine and benign causes in a majority of women
Hydrocele
A type of swelling in the scrotum that occurs when fluid collects in the thin sheath surrounding a testicle. Hydrocele is common in newborns and usually disappears without treatment by age 1. Older boys and adult men can develop a hydrocele due to inflammation or injury within the scrotum
SYMPTOMS: Usually, the only indication of a hydrocele is a painless swelling of one or both testicles. Adult men with a hydrocele might experience discomfort from the heaviness of a swollen scrotum. Pain generally increases with the size of the inflammation
CAUSE: A hydrocele can develop as a result of injury or inflammation within the scrotum. Inflammation might be caused by an infection in the testicle or in the small, coiled tube at the back of each testicle (epididymitis).
Leiomyomas
AKA Uterine fibroids, also called or myomas, are growths that appear in the uterus. They’re made of uterine muscle. They’re noncancerous and extremely common. In fact, 75 to 80% of people with a uterus will be diagnosed with fibroids at some point in their lives.
SYMPTOMS: Heavy menstrual bleeding.
Menstrual periods lasting more than a week.
Pelvic pressure or pain.
Frequent urination.
Difficulty emptying the bladder.
Constipation.
Backache or leg pains.
CAUSE: What causes fibroids? The cause of fibroids is not known. Research suggests each tumor develops from an abnormal muscle cell in the uterus and multiplies rapidly when encountering the estrogen hormone, which promotes the tumor’s growth.
Leiomyosarcoma (LMS)
A type of rare cancer that grows in the smooth muscles. The smooth muscles are in the hollow organs of the body, including the intestines, stomach, bladder, and blood vessels. In females, there is also smooth muscle in the uterus. Identified as a rare type of cancer, leiomyosarcoma affects smooth muscle tissue. These tumors are mostly located in the abdomen. However, they can occur anywhere in the body including the uterus. They can also develop on the skin and blood vessels. Surgical removal is the main treatment for this tumor at any location of the body.
SYMPTOMS: A leiomyosarcoma, especially in the early stages, may not be associated with any obvious symptoms (asymptomatic). General symptoms associated with cancer may occur including fatigue, fever, weight loss, a general feeling of ill health (malaise), and nausea and vomiting.
CAUSE: Experts aren’t exactly sure what causes leiomyosarcoma. It could be hereditary (meaning you inherited altered genes from your parents), or it could be because your own genes changed, causing cells to grow out of control. Leiomyosarcoma may also occur due to: Past radiation therapy
Ovarian Cancer
Cancer that forms in tissues of the ovary (one of a pair of female reproductive glands in which the ova, or eggs, are formed). Most ovarian cancers are either ovarian epithelial cancers (cancer that begins in the cells on the surface of the ovary) or malignant germ cell tumors (cancer that begins in egg cells).
SYMPTOMS: Abdominal bloating or swelling.
Quickly feeling full when eating.
Weight loss.
Discomfort in the pelvic area.
Fatigue.
Back pain.
Changes in bowel habits, such as constipation.
A frequent need to urinate.
CAUSE:
It’s not clear what causes ovarian cancer, though doctors have identified things that can increase the risk of the disease. Doctors know that ovarian cancer begins when cells in or near the ovaries develop changes (mutations) in their DNA. A cell’s DNA contains the instructions that tell the cell what to do
Mammary Duct Ectasia
A benign (non-cancerous) breast condition that occurs when a milk duct in the breast widens and its walls thicken. This can cause the duct to become blocked and lead to fluid build-up. It’s more common in women who are getting close to menopause.
SYMPTOMS: swelling, inflammation, nipple discharge, and redness in the nipple area.
pain or tenderness in the area.
a lump or area of thickening near the affected duct.
central creasing or inversion (turning inward) of the nipple.
fever (related to the associated infection
CAUSE: What causes mammary duct ectasia? Mammary duct ectasia results from inflammation (swelling). This inflammation causes a milk duct within the breast to widen and thicken. As inflammation worsens, milk ducts become blocked, and fluid builds up behind the blockage
Paget’s Disease of the Breast
Paget’s disease of the nipple, also known as Paget’s disease of the breast, is a rare condition associated with breast cancer. It causes eczema-like changes to the skin of the nipple and the area of darker skin surrounding the nipple (areola). It’s usually a sign of breast cancer in the tissue behind the nipple.
SYMPTOMS: Itching, tingling, or redness in the nipple and/or areola.
Flaking, crusty, or thickened skin on or around the nipple.
A flattened nipple.
Discharge from the nipple that may be yellowish or bloody
CAUSE: The cause of Paget’s disease of the nipple is unknown. Some women appear to be more at risk of developing breast cancer, but not specifically Paget’s disease. There are no known causes that lead to a specific type of breast cancer.
Prostate Cancer
Cancer that forms in tissues of the prostate (a gland in the male reproductive system found below the bladder and in front of the rectum). Prostate cancer usually occurs in older men.
SYMPTOMS: Difficulty starting urination.
Weak or interrupted flow of urine.
Urinating often, especially at night.
Trouble emptying the bladder completely.
Pain or burning during urination.
Blood in the urine or semen.
CAUSE: It’s not clear what causes prostate cancer. Doctors know that prostate cancer begins when cells in the prostate develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA contains the instructions that tell a cell what to do. The changes tell the cells to grow and divide more rapidly than normal cells do.
Spermatocele
An abnormal sac (cyst) that develops in the epididymis — the small, coiled tube located on the upper testicle that collects and transports sperm. Noncancerous and generally painless, a spermatocele usually is filled with milky or clear fluid that might contain sperm.
SYMPTOMS: A spermatocele usually causes no signs or symptoms and might remain stable in size.
If it becomes large enough, however, you might feel:
Pain or discomfort in the affected testicle.
Heaviness in the testicle with the spermatocele.
Fullness behind and above the testicle.
CAUSE: The cause of spermatoceles is unknown. Spermatoceles might result from a blockage in one of the multiple tubes within the epididymis that transport and store sperm from the testicle
Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Penis
The most common type of penile cancer is squamous cell carcinoma (cancer that begins in flat cells in the top layer of the skin). It usually forms on or under the foreskin (the loose skin covering the head of the penis).
SYMPTOMS: Signs of penile cancer include sores or other skin changes, discharge, and bleeding
CAUSE: Penile SCC has been associated with high-risk HPV infections, most commonly strains 16 and 18. The mechanism through which HPV leads to penile cancer is most likely mediated through viral oncogenes E6 and E7, which are actively transcribed by HPV-infected cells.
Teratoma
A type of germ cell tumor that may contain several different types of tissue, such as hair, muscle, and bone. A teratoma is a type of germ cell tumor that contains different types of tissues, including hair, teeth, eyes, bone, muscle, and neurons. Although teratomas are found primarily in the gonads, they can develop anywhere in the body, especially in midline locations, such as the sacrum, coccyx, mediastinum, retroperitoneum, and central nervous system. Teratomas may be mature or immature, based on how normal the cells look under a microscope. Sometimes teratomas are a mix of mature and immature cells.
SYMPTOMS: Once symptoms develop, they can vary significantly depending on where the tumor is located. General teratoma symptoms may include: Pain. Bleeding.
Possible symptoms include:
A visible mass in the tailbone area.
Abdominal pain.
Constipation.
Dysuria (painful urination).
Pubic swelling.
Weakness in the legs.
CAUSE: Teratomas form in germ cells, which are undifferentiated — meaning they can turn into any type of cell. A teratoma develops when there are disruptions during your cells’ differentiation process.
Testicular Tumors
The first sign of testicular cancer often is a bump or lump on a testicle. The cancer cells can grow quickly. They often spread outside the testicle to other parts of the body. Testicular cancer is highly treatable, even when it spreads to other parts of the body.
SYMPTOMS: A lump or swelling in either testicle.
A feeling of heaviness in the scrotum.
A dull ache in the lower belly or groin.
Sudden swelling in the scrotum.
Pain or discomfort in a testicle or the scrotum.
Enlargement or tenderness of the breast tissue.
Back pain.
CAUSE: Testicular cancer develops when cells multiply faster than usual, eventually forming a lump or tumor. Researchers aren’t sure what causes cells to behave this way. They do know that the cells that become testicular cancer are usually germ cells.
Uterine Adenocarcinoma
Adenocarcinoma. This type makes up the majority of uterine cancers. It develops from cells in the endometrium. This cancer is commonly called endometrial cancer.
SYMPTOMS: Uterine cancer may cause vaginal discharge or bleeding that is not normal for you. Bleeding may be abnormal because of how heavy it is or when it happens, such as after you have gone through menopause and between periods. Bleeding is never normal after your periods stop.
CAUSE: In most cases, cancer cells in the uterus are found in the endometrium, the inner lining of the uterus. This is called endometrial cancer. While the exact cause of a woman’s uterine cancer may not be known, certain risk factors are strongly linked to the disease, including obesity and high blood sugar.
Uterine Polyps
Growths attached to the inner wall of the uterus that expand into the uterus. Uterine polyps, also known as endometrial polyps, form as a result of cells in the lining of the uterus (endometrium) overgrowing. These polyps are usually noncancerous (benign), although some can be cancerous or can turn into cancer (precancerous polyps).
Uterine polyps range in size from a few millimeters — no larger than a sesame seed — to several centimeters — golf-ball-size or larger. They attach to the uterine wall by a large base or a thin stalk.
There can be one or many uterine polyps. They usually stay within the uterus, but they can slip through the opening of the uterus (cervix) into the vagina. Uterine polyps are most common in people who are going through or have completed menopause. But younger people can get them, too.
SYMPTOMS: Vaginal bleeding after menopause.
Bleeding between periods.
Frequent, unpredictable periods whose lengths and heaviness vary.
Very heavy periods.
Infertility.
CAUSE: form as a result of cells in the lining of the uterus (endometrium) overgrowing. These polyps are usually noncancerous (benign), although some can be cancerous or can turn into cancer (precancerous polyps).
Vaginal Carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma: Cancer that forms in the thin, flat cells lining the inside of the vagina. Squamous cell vaginal cancer spreads slowly and usually stays near the vagina, but may spread to the lungs, liver, or bone. This is the most common type of vaginal cancer
SYMPTOMS: Unusual vaginal bleeding, for example, after intercourse or after menopause.
Watery vaginal discharge.
A lump or mass in your vagina.
Painful urination.
Frequent urination.
Constipation.
Pelvic pain.
CAUSE: More than half of all vaginal cancers are caused by an infection with certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV). You can get HPV from: any skin-to-skin contact of the genital area. vaginal, anal or oral sex.
Vulvar Carcinoma
A type of cancer that occurs on the outer surface area of the female genitalia. The vulva is the area of skin that surrounds the urethra and vagina, including the clitoris and labia. Vulvar cancer commonly forms as a lump or sore on the vulva that often causes itching.
SYMPTOMS: Itching, burning, or bleeding on the vulva that does not go away.
Changes in the color of the skin of the vulva, so that it looks redder or whiter than is normal for you.
Skin changes in the vulva, including what looks like a rash or warts.
Sores, lumps, or ulcers on the vulva that do not go away.
CAUSE: Being exposed to human papillomavirus (HPV).
HPV is a sexually transmitted infection that increases the risk of several cancers, including vulvar cancer and cervical cancer. Many young, sexually active people are exposed to HPV , but for most the infection goes away on its own
