Skill acquisition Flashcards
(280 cards)
1
Q
Define skill
A
A skill is a learnt ability to bring about pre-determined results with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both.
2
Q
Define ability
A
An ability is something that you are born with. It is often referred to as a natural ability.
3
Q
What are the three types of skill?
A
- Gross skills
- Cognitive skills
- Perceptual skills
4
Q
What is a gross skill?
A
How we move
5
Q
What is a cognitive skill?
A
How we think and make decisions
6
Q
What is a perceptual skill?
A
How we visualise and anticipate things
7
Q
What is an open skill?
A
An open skill is performed in an unpredictable environment, the performer must react and adjust to the situation
8
Q
What is an example of an open skill?
A
A chest pass in netball - teammates and opposition are constantly moving around the court
9
Q
What is a closed skill?
A
A closed skill is performed in a predictable environment. The skill is identical every time/have set patterns.
10
Q
What is an example of a closed skill?
A
Swimming is in a closed environment
11
Q
What is a gross skill?
A
Movements that use large muscle groups to produce big, powerful movements (usually performed by the arms or legs)
12
Q
What is an example of a gross skill?
A
A sprint start - the quadriceps are used to drive out of the blocks
13
Q
What is a fine skill?
A
Precise movements that require high levels of accuracy and technique; often small movements that require small muscular contraction.
14
Q
What is an example of a fine skill?
A
A pistol shot - uses the muscles in the hand to stabilise the gun for accuracy
15
Q
What is a self-paced skill?
A
When the performer controls the start and the speed of the skill
16
Q
What is an example of a self-paced skill?
A
A hammer throw as the performer decides when to begin the rotations and decides how quickly they spin
17
Q
What is an externally-paced skill?
A
When the performer has no control over the start and the speed of the skill
18
Q
What is an example of an externally-paced skill?
A
When receiving a hockey pass, the performer must react to the speed and direction of the incoming ball. The performer receiving the pass has no control over the speed or direction of the incoming ball
19
Q
What is a discrete skill?
A
The skill has a clear beginning and ending
20
Q
What is an example of a discrete skill?
A
A pirouette in dance as there is an obvious start and finish
21
Q
What is a continuous skill?
A
The skill has no clear beginning or ending. The end subroutine of one skill becomes the beginning subroutine of the next
22
Q
What is an example of a continuous skill?
A
Cycling, running and swimming because of their cyclical nature
23
Q
What is a serial skill?
A
A skill that contains several discrete skills in order to make a more integrated movement
24
Q
What is an example of a serial skill?
A
The run, hop, step, jump and landing of triple jump
25
What is a high paced skill?
A skill that is not easily broken into parts. It's difficult to break into subroutines due to the speed at which the action is performed
26
What is an example of a high paced skill?
A volley in football
27
What is a low paced skill?
A skill that is easily broken into parts. Subroutines can be practiced in isolation
28
What is an example of a low paced skill?
Back stroke in swimming - the arm action, leg action and body positioning can easily be identified and practiced separately
29
What is a simple skill?
A skill that requires few decisions when being performed
30
What is an example of a simple skill?
A forward roll because there is little information to process and few decisions to make
31
What is a complex skill?
A skill that requires decision making using lots of information when performed. Involves more than one component
32
What is an example of a complex skill?
Dribbling a hockey ball
33
Name the 7 characteristic of skill
Aesthetically pleasing
Consistent
Efficient
Fluent
Accurate
Controlled
Economical
34
Define aesthetically pleasing
The skill is good to watch
35
Define consistent
The skill repeatedly has a high success rate
36
Define efficient
The skill is produced with the least amount of energy and in the quickest time
37
Define fluent
The skill is performed smoothly
38
Define accurate
The skill is precise
39
Define controlled
Movements are exact
40
Define economical
The skill seems effortless
41
What is whole practice?
This involves performing the skill in its entirety without breaking it into subroutines
42
Why would coaches use whole practice?
If the skill is highly organised, continuous, simples, fast, ballistic and discrete and if the performer is in the autonomous stage
43
What are 3 advantages of whole practice?
- Develops kinaesthesis
- Fluency between subroutines is maintained
- Not time consuming
44
What are 3 disadvantages of whole practice?
- Not ideal for cognitive performers - can lead to information overload
- Can cause fatigue
- Performer must be physically capable of producing the full skill
45
Give 2 examples of skills that can be trained using whole practice
- Golf swing
- Tennis serve
46
What is whole-part-whole training?
The learner attempts the full skill, then one subroutine (the weakness) is practiced in isolation before being integrated back into the entire skill
47
Why would coaches use whole-part-whole training?
If the skill is fast, complex, if the performer is in the autonomous stage - eliminating a specific weakness, if the performer is in the cognitive stage - executing a complex skill
48
What are 3 advantages of whole-part-whole practice?
- Kinaesthesis is maintained in the whole
- Fluency between subroutines is maintained in the whole
- Confidence and motivation increase as success is seen in each part
49
What are 3 disadvantages of whole-part-whole training?
- Time consuming
- Cannot use with highly organised skills
- Kinaesthesis and fluency can be negatively affected (negative transfer can occur)
50
Give an examples of a skill that can be trained using whole-part-whole practice
Kick in breaststroke
51
What is progressive part practice?
The first subroutine/part of the skill is taught and then the rest of the parts are added in sequence. Can also be referred to as chaining
52
Why would coaches use progressive part practice?
If the skill is serial, deemed dangerous, low organised, complex, and if the performer is in the cognitive stage of learning
53
What are 3 advantages of progressive part practice?
- Develops understanding behind each part of the skill
- Danger element is reduced
- Confidence and motivation increases as success is seen in each part
54
What are 3 disadvantages of progressive part practice?
- Very time consuming
- Cannot use with highly organised skills
- Kinaesthesis for whole skill not experienced until the very end
55
Give an example of a skill that can be trained using progressive part practice
Dance
56
Define transfer of learning
The effect of learning and performance of one skill on the learning and performance of another
57
What are the 4 types of transfer?
Positive, negative, bilateral and zero
58
Define positive transfer
When the learning of one skill helps the learning of another
59
Give an example of a positive transfer
The chest pass in basketball has a similar action to the chest pass in netball
60
Define negative transfer
When the learning of one skill hinders the learning of another
61
Give an example of a negative transfer
In badminton forehand shots are played with a flexible wrist but in tennis the wrist should be firmer
62
Define bilateral transfer
This is when a performer transfers skills for one side of their body to the other (left to right or right to left - from one limb to another)
63
Give 3 examples of bilateral transfers
- Kicking a football
- Playing a snooker shot
- Lay up in basketball court
64
Define zero transfer
When the learning of one skill has no impact on the learning of another
65
Give an example of zero transfer
The swimming arm action and the foot placement in rock climbing have nothing in common, therefore there is no transfer affect between them
66
Give 5 points of how successful transfer can be ensured
- Eliminate bad habits
- Planned progression
- Performer is well motivated
- Coach makes performer aware of transfer potential
- Identify elements that may hinder learning
67
What is massed practice?
Repeating a skill continuously with no recovery periods. It allows the performer to overlearn/groove the skill. It's best used when time is limited
68
What types of skills is massed practice used for?
Discrete, closed, self-paced and simple
69
What people is massed practice good for?
- Autonomous learner
- Highly motivated performers
- Performers that have high levels of fitness
70
What are 3 advantages of massed practice?
- Improves decision making, perception and selective attention - gains experience in a range of different situations
- Develops schemas - allows performers to adopt their skills to changing environments
- Improves motivation and enjoyment - variety of practice prevents boredom
71
What are 3 disadvantages of massed practice?
- Causes fatigue - particularly if the performer lacks fitness
- No time for feedback
- Can lose motivation as you must repeat drills
72
What is variable practice?
Practicing skills/drills in a constantly changing environment. For example, players practicing their passing technique and then transferring the skill into a 3 v 2 situation, this could then be put into a game
73
What types of skills is variable practice used for?
Open, externally paced and complex
74
What people is variable practice good for?
- Performer who is in the cognitive stage of learning
- Performer that lacks motivation
75
What are 3 advantages of variable practice?
- Improves decision making, perception and selective attention - gains experience in a range of different situations
- Develops schemas - allows performers to adopt their skills to changing environments
- Improves motivation and enjoyment - variety of practice prevents boredom
76
What are 3 disadvantages of variable practice?
- Time consuming
- Can cause fatigue
- Possibility of information overload
77
What is distributed practice?
Performing a skill repeatedly but with rest periods between each repetition. Best used when time isn't a factor
78
What does distributed practice allow time for?
Physical recovery, mental practice and feedback
79
What types of skills is distributed practice used for?
Continuous, complex, serial, low organisation, dangerous, externally paced and open
80
What people is distributed practice good for?
- Cognitive performers who need feedback
- Performers with low levels of fitness
- Performers with low levels of motivation
81
What are 3 advantages of distributed practive?
- Takes the pressure off the performer
- Allows time for physical recovery
- Allows controlled progress to be made
82
What are 3 disadvantages of distributed practice?
- Time consuming
- May not be useful for those trying to groove skills
- Loss of concentration and focus on rest intervals
83
What are the 3 stages of learning?
- Cognitive
- Associative
- Autonomous
84
What is the cognitive stageof learning?
The first stage of learning used by novice. Understanding and sub-routines are explored by trial and error
85
What are 3 key characteristics of a cognitive learner?
- Many mistakes are made and unable to self-correct
- Movements appear uncoordinated and jerky
- Motor programmes are not yet formed
86
What is the associative stage of learning?
The second stage of learning as motor programmes are developed and performance is smoother
87
What are 3 key characteristics of an associative learner?
- Movements appear smoother and more coordinated
- The athlete is starting to get a sense of internal kinaesthetic feedback when they perform the skill well
- Motor programmes are developing and will be stored in the long-term memory
88
What is the autonomous stage of learning?
The final stage of learning used by an expert when movement is detailed and specific.
89
What are 3 key characteristics of an autonomous learner?
- The performer is classed as an expert
- Skills are executed automatically/consistent, without consciously thinking about subroutines
- Motor programmes is formed
90
What is intrinsic feedback?
From within using kinaesthesis, used to ‘feel’ if the action was correct or not; can be positive/negative - from within
91
What is extrinsic feedback?
From an outside source, used to reinforce correct actions and correct errors; can be positive/negative - from an outside source
92
What is positive feedback?
Information about what was correct, so that it will be repeated in the future - encouragement
93
What is negative feedback?
Information about incorrect actions, so that it will be repeated, and errors are corrected - error correction
94
What is knowledge of results feedback?
Information about whether or not the skill/action was successful (if so, repeat) or unsuccessful (if so, adjust next time) - concerns the outcome
95
What is knowledge of performance feedback?
Information about why the skill/action was successful/unsuccessful, including technique and quality action - about technique
96
What is a learning plateau?
A learning plateau occurs when a learner stops progressing/no improvement in performance is evident
97
How many stages are there on the learning plateau graph?
4
98
What is stage 1 of the learning plateau graph?
Rate of learning is slow and performance level is poor because the performer is in the cognitive stage of learning. They are still working out the required subroutines using trial and error learning
99
What is stage 2 of the learning plateau graph?
Rapid acceleration in the rate of learning because the performer has begun to master the skill and gain some success, this provides reinforcement and motivation
100
What is stage 3 of the learning plateau graph?
No improvement in the rate of learning (reached a plateau). Performance stays at the same level
101
What is stage 4 of the learning plateau graph?
Performer has a drop in the rate of improvement; therefore, performance starts to get worse (drive reduction)
102
What are 5 causes of the plateau effect?
- Loss of motivation/boredom
- Mental/physical fatigue
- Limit of ability reached
- Poor coaching
- Incorrect goals set
103
What are solutions for loss of motivation/boredom?
- Set new task/challenges
- Use variable practice
- Offer tangible rewards
104
What are solutions for mental/physical fatigue?
- Allow the performer to rest
- Use distribution practice
105
What is a solution for limit of ability reached?
Allow the performer to compete against others of similar ability
106
What are some solutions for poor coaching?
- Try a variety of coaching methods
- Try an alternative coach
107
What is a solution for incorrect goals set?
Set realistic goals using the SMARTER principle
108
What is visual guidance?
Guidance that can be seen, a demonstration
109
What are 3 advantages of visual guidance?
- Helps build a clear mental image of how the skill should be performed
- Suitable for large groups
- Highlights weaknesses
110
What are 3 disadvantages of visual guidance?
- Too much information given at once could lead to overload
- Performer must be able to match the demonstration given - if they can't, confidence and motivation could be lost
- Demonstrations must be accurate - could be copied incorrectly
111
What is verbal guidance?
Using words to explain a task
112
What are 3 advantages of verbal guidance?
- Can be given immediately during performance
- Very useful for open skills where performer needs to make decisions and adapt quickly
- Used effectively in conjunction with visual guidance
113
What are 3 disadvantages of verbal guidance?
- Could experience information overload, if too many instructions are given at once
- Lengthy explanations may cause the performer to lose concentration
- Ensure correct type of feedback is used in relation to stage of learning
114
What is manual guidance?
Physically supporting a performer during a movement
115
What are 3 advantages of manual guidance?
- useful in dangerous tasks as it improves safety during performance
- Reduces fear/anxiety and therefore helps build confidence
- Whole skill can be attempted - allows performer to develop kinaesthesis
116
What are 3 disadvantages of manual guidance?
- Performer may becomes reliant on the support/aid
- It could create incorrect kinaesthesis - the 'feeling' might not be correct'
- Bad habits might be instilled
117
What is mechanical guidance?
Any equipment, apparatus or device used to aid and shape movement
118
What are 3 advantages of mechanical guidance?
- Effective for cognitive performers
- Reduces fear/anxiety and therefore helps build confidence
- Whole skill can be attempted - allows performer to develop kinaesthesis
119
What are 3 disadvantages of mechanical guidance?
- Performer may become reliant on the support/aid
- It could create incorrect kinaesthesis - the 'feeling' might not be correct
- Performer may become demotivated as they feel they are not performing the skill by themselves
120
What is believed in the Gestalt theory?
They believe - teaching the whole skill is better than the isolated parts/sub routines
They believe that part learning is not effective! Learning the skill as a whole, kinaesthesis and the flow of the skill is maintained
Used in realistic situations that are closely linked to the game or event
121
Define insight learning
Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to whole skill
122
What are the 4 key characteristics of cognitive/insight/gestaltism learning theory?
- Cognitive (it teaches the performer to think rather than just do)
- Problem solving (presented with a problem - work out solution - idea is then tried)
- Ises existing knowledge/past experiences (to form an idea of how to deal with sporting situations)
- It focuses on the whole task (by learning when, where and why to use a skill)
123
What is the 3 step process in cognitive learning?
- Problem solving - individual/team set a problem to achieve a certain performance outcome
- Adaptation to the new situations -solution the learner has found can be applied to broader situations
Because they understand the why in the solution they solved themselves
- Understanding why 'Eureka moment' - may learn a skill in isolation and perform really well but may not understand the context/purpose of when to apply it in a game context
124
What are the limitations of the insight learning theory?
- Not suitable for performers in the cognitive stage of learning - no motor programmes formed. Meaning they cannot use pre-existing knowledge to help them solve the problematic situation they are faced with
- Performing the whole skill maybe too complex for the performer - lack of understanding/information
- Can be seen as very time consuming when trying to develop skills
125
Define satisfier
An action that promotes pleasant feeling so that responses are repeated
126
Define annoyer
An action that creates unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses
127
Define positive reinforcement
A pleasant stimulus is given to increase the likelihood of a correct response
128
Define negative reinforcement
The removal of praise when a performance is incorrect
129
Define punishment
An unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions recurring
130
Define operant conditioning
The use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated. It is a behaviourist theory. ‘Learning through the consequences of our actions’
131
What are the 3 key features of operant conditioning?
- Shapes behaviour
- Based on trial and error
- Manipulates the environment
132
How is operant conditioning based on trial and error?
Allows the performer to use trial and error in their practice
133
Why is the environment manipulated in operant conditioning?
This is to ensure success/desired response occurs.
Taking a set response and making it grooved/over learnt by continually repeating and reinforcing that behaviour.
To make a particular response happen in the context of a particular stimulus
134
How does operant conditioning shape behaviour?
By use of reinforcement/punishment ensures these behaviours are either strengthened or weakened
135
How can positive reinforcement be used in a coaching/teaching environment?
Endorsing a performers actions when a correct response is produced, so that they repeat the same behaviour in the future
136
How can negative reinforcement be used in a coaching/teaching environment?
Removing the criticism. Saying nothing when a correct action is shown, after a period of criticism about performance.
137
How can punishment be used in a coaching/teaching environment?
Trying to break the bond between the wrong response to a particular stimulus. For example:
- Substitution
- Booked
- Fines
- Ban
- Extra training
138
If a coach uses operant conditioning, what else might they use?
- Whole or whole-part-whole practice to isolate the key aspects of the task, this is another means of manipulating the environment.
- Mental practice to go over the correct aspects of the task in the mind to help shape behaviour.
- Set individual targets as a key motivator
139
Define attention
Making the demonstration attractive to the performer
140
Define retention
Remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it
141
Define motor programme
Having the mental and physical ability to do the task
142
Define motivation
Having the drive to do the task
143
What were the main assumptions of Bandura's theory?
His theory suggests that people learn by watching others.
By watching and replicating the actions of other role model performers, people we respect and admire. These models may be a family member, coaches, teachers, peers or role models in the media.
144
Who are learners most likely to copy?
- Significant others
- Models that have similar characteristics e.g. age, gender
- Actions that are successful
- Actions that are reinformed
145
Are attention and retention perceptual or psychomotor?
Perceptual
146
Are motor production and motivation perceptual or psychomotor?
Psychomotor
147
How will a coach make sure attention is happening with a performer?
- Ensure performer takes notice by making demonstration attractive/accurate/performed by significant other
- Focus and concentrate on the model - avoid distractions
- Making sure the performer takes note of the relevant cues (coaching points - verbal guidance)
148
How will a coach make sure retention is happening with a performer?
- The creation of a mental picture for future reference
- Clarity - clear demonstration
- Ability to remember important information (combining visual with verbal will help this)
- Recall from the memory system (creating mental image - using demonstration given)
149
How will a coach make sure a performer has the correct motor production?
- The learner must be physically/mentally ready to perform task
- Have the capability/ confidence to replicate what has been demonstrated
- Understand the skill
- Attempt skill immediately after demo
150
How will a coach make sure a performer is motivated?
- The learner must have the desire to copy
- Reinforce through positive/negative/punishment
- Needs drive
151
What are the characteristics of a good demo?
- Everyone can see it being interesting/fun
- Clear instructions (verbal and visual cues - don't overload 'short and sweet')
- Significant other is demonstrating (coach, peer, role model)
- Within capability of the performer/stage of learning
- Give time for performer to rehearse mental image
- Breakdown into sub-routines
- Variety of formats e.g. physical demo, video, picture, peer demo
152
Define social development
Learning by association with others
153
Define inter - psychological learning
Learning from others externally
154
Define intra - psychological learning
Learning from within after gaining external knowledge from others
155
Define constructivism
Building up learning in stages, based on the current level of performance
156
Define zone of proximal development
The next stage of learning based on the performer's needs, expectations and current level of performance
157
What did Vygotsky suggest in his constructivism theory?
Vygotsky (1978) suggested that Interaction with others plays a vital role in learning, this is known as social development
158
How can Vygotsky's constructivism theory be applied to sport?
We learn skills from people around us with whom we interact (coaches, teachers, players)
159
Who is a more knowledgeable other?
This is a person, normally a coach or teacher, who has a greater understanding of the task than you do.
They provide technical advice and feedback of how to produce the skill successfully
160
What are the demonstrating actions and values a more knowledgeable other can show that influence a performer?
- High levels of effort
- Following a healthy lifestyle
- Clear communication
161
How are skills learnt through inter-psychological learning?
- Advice
- Feedback
- Tactical knowledge
162
What needs to happen before intra-psychological learning?
Social development needs to occur first between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the learner (intra-psychological)
163
What is the zone of proximal development?
This is an assessment that learners will use in order to see what they need to do next to learn the skill.
The learner will use three levels of performance to assess how to improve.
164
What are the three levels of performance in the zone of proximal development?
1. What can I do alone?
2. What can I do with help?
3. What can I not do yet?
165
What can a performer do in the first level of the zone of proximal development?
Achieving skill/success independently without assistance
166
What can a performer do in the second level of the zone of proximal development?
Achieve with help from the more knowledgeable other – scaffolding can be used here, to allow learners to develop skills they will use on their own in future
167
What can a performer do in the third level of the zone of proximal development?
Cannot do this skill at this moment in time
168
Why is Vygotsky's theory not applicable to all sports?
- Learning is dependent on accurate modelling from external sources. If the more knowledgeable other is inaccurate, learning is impacted negatively
- The learning also depends on the ability of the performer to make progress. What if the performer has lower ability – progress could be very slow, could have negative impact on confidence and motivation
169
Define information processing
The Methods by Which data from the environment are collected and utilised
170
Define display
The sporting environment
171
Define receptor systems
The senses that pick-up information from the display
172
Define kinaesthesis
The inner sense that gives information about body position and muscular tension
173
Define selective attention
Filtering relevant information from relevant information
174
Define stimuli
The important and relevant items of information from the display, e.g. flight of ball
175
What are the 4 stages of information processing?
- Input
- Process
- Output
- Feedback
176
What is the input stage?
Gathering cues from the sporting environment (display). Interpretating the information
177
What is the decision making stage?
A decision is made on what course of action to take. Retrieving info from LTM
178
What is the output stage?
The skill is produced
179
What is the feedback stage?
The performer received information about the skill
180
What are the 2 external senses used in sport?
- Sight
- Hearing
181
What are the 3 internal senses used in sport?
- Touch
- Balance
- Kinaesthesis
182
What are external senses (exteroception)?
Information collected from the environment
183
What are internal senses (proprioception)?
Used from within
184
Give an example of how the 5 senses are used returning a tennis serve
Vision - flight of the ball
Sound - hear the ball being struck by the opponent
Balance - adjust the feet ready for the return
Touch - feel the grip on the racket
Kinaesthesis - recognise limb position as the player prepares to strike the ball
185
Define perceptual mechanisms
The process of coding and interpreting sensory information
186
Define translatory mechanisms
Adapting and comparing coded information to memory so that decisions can be made
187
Define effector mechanism
The network of nerves that sends coded impulses to the muscles
188
What are the 3 things in the DCR process?
- Detection
- Comparison
- Recognition
189
When does the DCR process occur?
During the perceptual mechanisms stage of Whiting's model
190
What is the detection stage of DCR?
Where the performer has picked up the relevant information and identified this as important from using the senses and the process of selective attention
191
What is the comparison stage of DCR?
Involves trying to match the information identified as important to information already stored in the memory, hence the importance of the memory system becomes important to the performer
192
What is the recognition stage of DCR?
This is where the performer has used the information from the memory to identify an appropriate response to the situation. This response can then be put into action which would take you into the output stage
193
What is the process in the perceptual mechanisms stage of Whiting's model?
- The performer must make a decision based on all the information collected at the INPUT stage by the 5 senses (Receptor Systems)
- Selective attention and the use of memory are vital at this stage
- The performer receives information from the Short-Term Sensory Store (Input – Receptor Systems)
- The decision process occurs by comparing the current situation, held in the short-term memory, with previous experiences, held in long-term memory, to determine appropriate action
194
What is the difficulty in the perceptual mechanism stage?
You can receive a lot of information from all 5 senses, yet you need to make your decision based on only the important aspects.
There is a process that helps performers separate the relevant and irrelevant information - selective attention
195
What are 2 factors that impact selective attention?
- Stage of learning
- Type of skill (simple/complex)
196
How does stage of learning impact selective attention?
- Selective Attention going to be poor for a performer in the cognitive stage, as they may suffer from information overload
- Unable to focus on relevant info and disregard irrelevant info
- Leading to slower decision-making process and increased chance of incorrect decision
197
How does type of skill impact selective attention?
Simple skill’s where limited decision making is required you would expect most performers (even those within the cognitive stage) to be able to process the information require Complex skills where numerous decisions must be made a cognitive performer would come up against the same issues as before. Information overload – slower decision/incorrect decision
198
How can someone improve selective attention?
- Increase fitness levels: reduce fatigue to lengthen attention span
- Learning to focus and concentrate on the important information: a stimulus can be made more intense when training, e.g. loud or bright, in order to develop concentration. Practice with distractions
- Improved motivation: Improved motivation: use of rewards such as positive comments/reinforcement meaning the performer will become more alert to the important information
- Mental practice: running through the up-and-coming task in the mind before the movement starts. Which can save time and energy in their performance
- Modify practice: one way of doing this could be by increasing the time to react or slowing the stimulus down
- Analysis: look at the strengths and weakness of the opposition/identify the opposition’s patterns of behaviour to increase ability to focus attention
199
What are the benefits of selective attention?
- Aids concentration
- Improves reaction time
- Filters out any distractions
- Controls arousal levels
- Reduces the chance of information overload in the short-term memory
200
What are factors that impact perception?
- It is difficult to detect information that is not clear
- Too much information
- Or information disguised by the opposition, so this is talking about use of dummy passes or disguised passes
201
What do translatory mechanisms do?
Translatory mechanisms use the information from the perceptual mechanisms (DCR) to decide on what action should be taken .
202
What happens in the environment stage of Whiting's model?
Contains the display. All the space around the outside of the model. Everything within/outside the performer
203
What happens in the display stage of Whiting's model?
All the sensory info surrounding the performer. The sporting environment
204
What happens in the receptor stage of Whiting's model?
Absorbing sensory info from display.
Vision, Auditory, Touch, Balance, Kinaesthesis
205
What happens in the perceptual mechanisms stage of Whiting's model?
Starting to interpret sensory info
(selective attention / filtering / Detection Comparison Recognition)
Making sense of incoming information
206
What happens in the translatory mechanism stage of Whiting's model?
Relevant information selected, compares info with memory - decisions converted into command – motor programme
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What happens in the effector mechanism stage of Whiting's model?
The network of nerves that sends coded impulses to the muscles
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What happens in the muscular system stage of Whiting's model?
Receiving the coded nerve impulses
e.g. our arms need to abduct to perform a ‘block’ at the net – timing of sequence
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What happens in the output stage of Whiting's model?
Producing the movement (motor programme)
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What happens in the feedback stage of Whiting's model?
Intrinsic or extrinsic feedback is given about the skill that was performed
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What happens in the short-term sensory store?
- Receives ALL information from the display
- Selective attention occurs, to prevent information overload
- Information is filtered / selective attention
- Passes the relevant information to the short-term memory
- Holds information for a very brief amount of time (a few seconds) after the original stimulus has stopped
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What happens in the short-term memory?
- Referred to as the working memory system
- Receives information from the short-term sensory store
- DCR process occurs
- Information in to/from long-term memory (encoding – linking to LTM)
- Limited capacity – can only hold 6-9 items
- Limited time scale – 30 seconds
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What happens in the long-term memory?
- Stores past experiences as motor programmes – well learnt (e.g. playing a chest pass in netball, sprint start etc)
- Mental image of movement to be performed
- All relevant and rehearsed information
- Used for comparison in the STM
Information in to / from STM
- Unlimited capacity
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What are strategies that players/coaches could use to ensure useful information and motor programmes are effectively stored in the LTM?
- Mental rehearsal/imagery
- Linking/association with past experiences
- Chunking
- Enjoyment/fun experiences
- Chaining
- Reinforcement/rewards
- Practice/rehearsal
- Meaningful
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How does mental rehearsal ensure effective storage?
Visualising the skill or going over it mentally enables learners to remember what is needed to perform the skill
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How does linking/association with past experiences ensure effective storage?
Relate the new information to that already stored - positive transfer
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What is chunking?
Breaking the skilled action into parts or sub routines
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How does enjoyment/fun experiences ensure effective storage?
If the learner has a positive experience that is presented to them in a new or distinctive way, then they are more likely to remember that information
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How does chaining ensure effective storage?
Chaining involves linking together pieces of information, in an organised manner. Makes it easier for the learner to remember
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How does reinforcement/rewards ensure effective storage?
If the learner receives positive feedback or reinforcement after a correct repose, they are more likely to remember the information
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How does practice/rehearsal ensure effective storage?
Repetition overlearns or ‘groves’ a skill. This will help to create a motor programme and enable it to be stored in the LTM
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How does the meaningfulness of a skill ensure effective storage?
Information is more likely to be remember if the learner understands its relevance to them and their performance. Coaches should explain explicitly to performers
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What is the central executive in the working memory model?
- Control centre of the working memory model, it uses three other ‘systems’ to control all the information moving in and out of the memory system
- It identifies which information should be sent to the correct slave system
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What is the phonological loop in the working memory model?
- Deals with auditory information from the senses and helps produce the memory trace
- Deals with spoken and written material
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What is the visuospatial sketchpad in the working memory model?
- Used to temporarily store visual and spatial information
- Helps process information about the kinaesthesis of the movement
- Used for navigation
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What is the episodic buffer in the working memory model?
- Co-ordinates the sight, hearing and movement information from the working memory into sequences to be sent to the LTM
- Holds information temporarily
- Acts as a 'backup' store which communicates with both LTM and the components of working memory
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What are the three sub-systems in the working memory model?
The phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad and the episodic buffer
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What are the two parts of the phonological loop?
- Phonological store (inner ear)
- Articulatory process (inner voice)
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What is the phonological store?
Linked to speech perception. Holds information in speech-based form for 1-2 seconds
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What is the articulatory process?
Used for maintenance rehearsal (repeats things in our head to create a memory trace) and stores verbal info from the phonological store
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What are the two parts of the visuospatial sketchpad?
- The visual cache
- The inner scribe
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What is the visual cache?
Holds information about form and colour
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What is the inner scribe?
Deals with spatial and movement information
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What is a limitation of the working memory model?
When applied to sport, sporting actions contain auditory, movement and visual information. It is difficult to process all this information at once into separate parts and then coordinate it into a memory trace – a lot of work for the working memory, especially in the fraction of a second in which sporting decisions are made
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How does the working memory link with LTM?
if a skill is practiced, it is then transferred to the long-term memory and stored as a motor programme
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Does the working memory have a limited capacity?
Yes, around 6-9 items, holding the information for around 30 seconds
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What does Schmidt's schema theory state?
Schema theory suggests that rather than using a structured set of movements to develop a skill, the core principles can be taken from an existing motor programme
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What is a schema?
Schemas are generalised motor programme’s (GMP) that can be adapted to suit different situations
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How does the schema theory apply to learning new skills?
When learning new skills we recall stored schemas and modify them to suit the new skill
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What are the two schema categories the four essential processes are split into?
- Recall schema
- Recognition schema
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What is the recall schema?
Information is used from the motor programme in the memory system. It initiates movement and comes before the action
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What are the two processes in the recall schema?
- Initial conditions
- Response specifications
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What is initial conditions in the recall schema?
- Refers to information from the sporting environment that must be recognised before the schema can be used
- Information about whether you have been in this situation or similar before
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What is response specifications in the recall schema?
- Based on the initial conditions, you decide what movement/action to perform
- Ideal response/movement demand selected based on past experiences and initial condition interpretation
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What is the recognition schema?
Controls the movement and happens during the action
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What is sensory consequence in the recognition schema?
- Concern the use of the senses to help guide the movement
- Using information about the movement through intrinsic feedback or kinaesthesis (intrinsic)
- Information from the senses is used to control and apply the movement to the situation – for a longer pass you would need a stronger arm action and grip
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What is the response outcome in the recognition schema?
- Comparison of actual and intended outcome
- This is where the schema and the motor programme can be updated by getting knowledge of the result of the action
- Feedback about result (KOR)
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Who would schemas not work for?
A novice might not have developed a motor programme which can then be adapted
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Define reaction time
The time taken from the onset of a stimulus to the onset of a response
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Define movement time
The time taken to complete the task
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Define response time
The time taken from the onset of a stimulus to the competition of a task
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What is the response time formula?
Response time = reaction time +movement time
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What is the psychological refractory period?
A delay when a second stimulus is presented before the first has been processed
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Define anticipation
Pre-judging a stimulus
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Define temporal anticipation
When it is going to happen
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Define spatial anticipation
Where and what is going to hapen
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What is reaction time?
- Involves no movement
- The time taken from the onset of the stimulus to the onset of the response
- It is the fraction of a second that it takes us to process the available selected stimuli
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What is an example of reaction time?
From a penalty kick in football the GK reaction time would be from the opponent striking the ball to when the GK just begins to push off the floor to start the dive
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What is simple reaction time?
Where there is one specific response to one stimulus
Should produce a fast reaction and response as the athlete only has one thing to think about before they react
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What is an example of choice reaction time?
In a swimming race the stimulus is the starter signal and the only response is to dive in
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What is choice reaction time?
Where you have to choose from numerous stimuli
The response time is much slower
Can also be when the player has to choose a number of responses once the correct stimulus has been chosen
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What is an example of choice reaction time?
In football in open play you may have several team mates calling for a pass and several responses in terms of who to pass to, type of pass etc.
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What is movement time?
The time it takes to complete the task after information processing has taken place
The time from the start to the completion of the action
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What is an example of movement time?
The time from when the GK pushes off the floor to when the dive (save attempt) is complete
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What is response time?
The total time it takes from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of the action
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What is an example of response time?
From when the opponent first strikes the ball to the save attempt being completed
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How does the number of choices influence response time?
As the number of choices increases, so does reaction time
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How can Hick's law be an advantage?
In sport this law can be used to gain an advantage as you can keep your opponent guessing
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Why is Hick's law not always a straightforward linear relationship?
Players can become familiar with their environment and in our tennis example, as the game gets into its later stages, the opponent may have got used to the types of serves being played and their response becomes slightly quicker
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What is the single-channel hypothesis?
- stimuli are processed along a single nerve
- Only one stimuli can be processed at a time
- The second stimulus arrives before the first response can be completed
- The second stimulus must wait until the first has been processed
- Causes a bottleneck at nerve
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What is the psychological refractory period?
The delay, is caused by confusion of the second stimuli arriving before the first has been processed
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What would happen if a stimulus arrived before we had completed the processing of a previous stimulus?
The performer might ‘freeze’ completely for a split second, depending on how long it takes to sort out the conflicting information
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In sport how can you use the psychological refractory period to your advantage?
- You can deceive your opponent to force a delay in their response – performing a fake or dummy pass in rugby for example
- Using fake body language to fool your opponent such as standing as if you are going to do a short serve in badminton and then hitting the shuttle long
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How can a performer use anticipation?
- Using information from the environment in the form of signals/cues from the opponent, this could include body language/positioning
- Information can also be learned prior to the game by researching the opposition or by learning through the actions of your opponent throughout the game
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What is an example of temporal anticipation?
A football goalkeeper predicting when a player is going to shoot or predicting speed of the ball
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What is an example of spatial anticipation?
A football goalkeeper predicting where the ball will go / equivalent or type of pass
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How can anticipation be linked to response time?
Correct anticipation improves response time
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What are factors that affect reaction time?
- Stimulus intensity - bright stimulus, quicker detection
- Previous experience/stage of learning - experience speeds up reaction time
- Anticipation - predicting a movement can reduce reaction time
- Choice - more choices = slower reaction time
- Age - reaction time increases with age
- Gender - usually, males have a faster reaction time
- Temperature - the colder the body, the slower the reaction time
- Drugs/alcohol - drugs speed it up, alcohol slows it down
- Fatigue levels - high level of fatigue slows reaction time
- Arousal levels - optimal arousal level increases reaction time
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How can response time be improved?
- Mental practice
- Practice
- Experience
- Selective attention
- Improve fitness
- Warm up
- Optimum arousal
- Anticipation
