Slide set 1 Flashcards
1
Q
The difference between physiology and anatomy
A
Physiology-the study of the normal functioning of an organism( the process)
Anatomy-the study of the structure
2
Q
Levels of organisation
A
Molecules-> cells->tissues->organ-> organ system
3
Q
What is gross anatomy
A
Study of the body and its parts using only naked eye
4
Q
What is microanatomy
A
Tissue and cells ( histology and cytology
5
Q
Overview how does the heart beat
A
Electrical conduction system of the heart
Specialized cells in regions of the heart that initiate (autorhythmic cells), conduction of electrical signals, muscle cells (myocytes) that contract
-Branching interactions propagate action potentials
Pacemaker activity with slow depolarization for action potential
6
Q
Mechanism of cardiac muscle action potential
A
Na entry, change of charge
Ca entry-the plateau
K+ loss- depolarization
7
Q
What are twy control systems that communicate well with each other
A
Nervous
Endocrine
8
Q
What is cell
A
Smallest and most numerous units that make up tissues
9
Q
What is a mammalian cell
A
Nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm within a membrane
10
Q
What makes cell differentiate
A
Control gene expression and unique cell-specific transcriptosomes and proteomes
11
Q
What is essential for cell differentiation
A
cell-cell communication
Growth factors
ECM
Cell locating in differentiating embryo
12
Q
Three layers that rise from blastocyst
A
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ecroderm
13
Q
What rise from endoderm
A
lining of digestive and respiratory tracts, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid and bladder, lungs, urogenital tract
14
Q
What rise from mesoderm
A
circulatory system, excretory system, muscles, connective tissue, organs
bones
heart
15
Q
What rise from ectoderm
A
Integument (skin), lens of the eye and nervous system
16
Q
What is a tissue
A
An organization of similar cells specialized to perform a certain function
17
Q
Four major tissue types
A
Epethilial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
18
Q
Characteristics of epethilial tissues
A
One or more layers of densely arranged cells with very little ECM, found on free surface
19
Q
Functions of epethilial tissue
A
Covers and protect the body surface (sheets)
Lines body cavities
Movement of substances (secretory)
20
Q
Where to find epethilial tissue
A
Skin, lining of respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary, glands of the body
21
Q
Characteristics of connective tissue
A
Few cells surrounded by lots of ECM
22
Q
Functions of connective tissue
A
Connect anchors and supports body structures, transport. Provides structural and metabolic support
23
Q
Where is connective tissue found
A
Bone, tendons, blood, fat
24
Q
ECM, its composition and variation
A
In the extracellular matrix, collagen fibers are interwoven with a class of carbohydrate-bearing proteoglycans
If it is calcified, it can form bone or teeth
Specialized forms of ECM comprise tendons, cartilage
25
General connective tissue is
Either loose, or dense, depending on the arrangement of the fibres
26
What is the proteins of cells in the matrix
Glycoproteins
Fibrous proteins
Glycosoaminoglycans
27
Characteristic of muscle
Long fiberlike cells
28
Functions of muscle cells and where they are found
F: can contract and generate force
Where its found: heart skeletal muscle, surrounding hollow organs such as bladder and uterus
29
Nervous tissue : characteristics, function, where its found
Cells specialized for conducting nerve impulses
Functions: initiate and transmit electrical impulses
Where its found: brain, spinal cord and nerves
30
Organ is made up of
Different kinds of tissues to perform a special function
31
What kind of tissues are found in the stomach?
```
Smooth muscle
Nervous tissue
Loose connective tissue
Epithelium
Connective tissue
```
32
What is homeostasis and who invented this term
Physiological attempt to correct when physiological set point challenged
If the parameters are not maintained->disease or death
Walter B. Cannon
33
Basic components if homeostatic mechanism
Sensor
Integrating, or control center
Effector mechanism
Feedback
34
What is a sensor
Detects and reacts to any changes from normal set point
35
What is integrating center
Information is analyzed and if needed, a specific action is initiated
36
What is effector mechanism
Brings about the change to return to the set point
37
What is feedback
Process of information about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator
38
Characterize negative feedback control systems
Inhibitory
Act to reset physiological variables
Responsible for maintaining homeostasis
More common than positive feedbacks
39
Who will be a sensor, integrator and effector when it is cold
Skin->sensor
Integrator->hypothalamus
Effector->muscles
40
Describe positive feedback systems
Stimulatory
Amplify or reinforce the change that is occuring
Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasis
Bring specific body function to swift completion
41
Example of positive feedback
Oxytocin and labor
42
Difference between intracellular and intrinsic control
Intracellular- operates within cells/ genes or enzymes often regulate cell processes
Instrinsic control (autoregulation)- regulation within tissues or organs/ may involve chemical signals
43
Describe extrinsic control (homeostasis)
- Regulation from organ to organ
- May involve nerve signals
- May involve endocrine signals (hormones)
44
Teleological approach vs mechanistic approach
Teleological-why red blood cells transport oxygen-> because cells need it
Mechanistic approach->oxygen bounds to hemoglobin-> how it is done
45
Two types of fluids
extracellular
| Intercellular
46
What are concentrations of ions in ECF and ICF
ECF-More Na, Cl, little K
| ICF- More K, little Na, Cl
47
What is pH inside lysosome
4.5-5
48
3 cavities of our body
Cranial cavity
Thoracic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity
49
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by
Cerebrospinal fluid
50
The extracellular fluid subdivides into
Plasma and interstitial fluid
51
Where is mucous membrane
Peritoneal membrane
Pericardial membrane
Pleural membrane
Mucous-the mouth and vagina
Peritoneal membrane-lines the inside of the abdomen
Pleural membrane-covers the surface of the lungs
Pericardial membrane-surrounds the heart
52
Two synonyms to cell membrane
Plasma membrane
| Plasmalemma
53
Basic functions of the cell membrane
Physical isolation
Regulation of exchange with the environment
Communication between the cell and its environment
Structural support
54
What is the thickness of cell membrane
8 nanometers
55
Three main types of lipids
Phospholipids
Sphingolipids
Cholesterol
56
Three arrangements of fatty acids in water
Micells
Liposomes
Cell membrane
57
Types of proteins that can be found in the membrane
```
Integral:transmembrane and lipid-anchored
Peripheral proteins ( anchor cytoskeleton to the membrane)
```
58
What is glycocalyx
A protective layer of CHO attached to proteins or lipids
59
Lipid drafts are made of
Sphingolipids
60
Cell membrane consists of
CHO, proteins, Lipids/Sphingolipids, cholesterol
61
What is the role of glycolipids and glycoproteins
Structural stability
Cell recognition
Immune response
62
Cytoplasm consists of
Cytosol inclusions
Protein fibers or cytoskeleton
Organelles
63
Difference between microvilli, microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments
Microvilli increase cell surface area, they are supported ny microfillaments
Microtubules -the largest cytoskeleton fiber
Intermediate filaments-Include myosin and keratine
64
Membrane organelles
```
Mitochondria
ER
Golgi
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
```
65
Cytoplasmic inclusions
Lipid drplets
Glycogen granules
Ribosomes
66
Protein fibers of the cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Cilia
Flagella
67
What is the role of microtubules
Made from microtubules and direct DNA movement during cell division
68
The role of lysosomes
Small, spherical storage vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes
69
Role of peroxisomes
Contain enzymes that break down long FAs and potentially toxic foreign molecules
70
Golgi apparatus consist of
Cisternae
71
Role of smooth ER and rough ER
Rough ER- synthesis of proteins
Smooth ER-synthesize o lipids and in some cells concentrates and stores calcium ions
72
Structure of nucleus
Surrounded by a double-membrane nuclear envelope, inside is nucleoli, The outer membrane of nuclear envelope is connected to ER
73
Three families of cytoplasmic fibers
Actin, also called microfilaments
Intermediate filaments (like keratin and neurofilament)
Microtubules, made up from tubulin
74
Centrosome has how many centrioles
2
75
Cilia are found in what type of cells
Upper respiratory tract
| Female reproductive system
76
Structure of cilia
9 pairs of microtubules surrounding a central pair
They terminate at the basal body
Dynein helps microtubules to slide past each other
77
Flagella: the difference from cilia and where it is found
Flagella is longer
| Sperm
78
How many microtubules in centriole
27-> nine triplets
79
5 functions of cytoskeleton
```
Cell shape
Internal organization
Intracellular transport
Assembly of cells into tissues
Movement
```
80
Three groups of motor proteins and role of each
Myosins-bind to actin fibers and role muscle contraction
Kinesins
Dyneins- together they assist the movement of vesicles along microtubules
81
Mitochondria has its own
DNA
82
What does smooth ER of liver and kidney cells do
Detoxifies/ inactivates drugs
83
How lysosomes are activated
When lysosomes first pinch off from the Golgi
apparatus, their interior pH is about the same as that of the cytosol,
7.0–7.3. The enzymes are inactive at this pH. However, as the lysosome sits in the cytoplasm, it accumulates
H+ in a process that uses energy. Increasing concentrations
of H+ decrease the pH inside the vesicle to 4.8–5.0, and the enzymes
are activated
84
What is Tay-Sachs disease
Infants have defective lysosomes-> no glycolipids break down->accumulation of glycolipids in nerve cells-> nervous system dysfunction-> blindness and loss of coordination
85
What enzyme do peroxisome have and what does it do
Catalase
| Converts h2o2 to water and oxygen
86
Communication between the nucleus and cytosol occurs through and what can be transported
The nuclear pore complex. Ions and small molecules move freely, proteins and RNA requires energy
87
What is the matrix and cells secreting ECM
Matrix-loose connective tissue
| Cells-fibroblasts
88
What type of tissue has a little and extensive ECM
```
Nerve and muscles- little matrix
Connective tissues (cartilage, bone, blood)- extensive ECM
```
89
3 types of stronger cell junctions
Communicating (gap junctions)
Occluding (tight junctions)
Anchoring
90
What is the role of gap junctions, what it is made up froom
They allow direct and rapid cell-to-cell communication
through cytoplasmic bridges between adjoining
cells.Gap junctions allow both chemical and electrical signals
to pass rapidly from one cell to the next
Made up from connexins
91
Role of tight junctions,
restrict the
movement of material between the cells they link.
In tight junctions, the cell membranes of adjacent cells partly
fuse together and
occludins, thereby making a barrier.
92
Heart and gap junctions
Heart uses gap junctions to so that a single nerve impulse can travel to and stimulate heart to contract all at once
93
Where tight junctions are important
Intestinal epithelium so that enzymes can not reach underlying stroma layer
94
Anchoring junction example and usage
Cells' attachment to each other or to the ECM. For example: belt desmosome or spot desmosome
Fibers on the outer surface of each desmosome interlock with each other (VELCRO); anchored internally by intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton
95
Difference between spot desmosomes and belt desmosomes
Spot desmosomes connect adjacent membranes at different spots
Belt desmosomes encircle the entire cell like a collar
96
What is the role of epethilia
-Line exposed surfaces
-Line internal passageways
-Any substance that enters or leaves the internal environment
of the body must cross an epithelium.
97
Structure of epethilia
one or
more layers of cells connected to one another, with a thin layer
of extracellular matrix lying between the epithelial cells and
their underlying tissues .This matrix layer, called the
basal lamina or basement
membrane, is composed of a network of collagen and laminin
filaments embedded in proteoglycans.. The protein filaments hold
the epithelial cells to the underlying cell layers, just as cell junctions
hold the individual cells in the epithelium to one another
98
Types of epethelium
```
Exchange
Protective
Secretory
Transported
Ciliated
```
99
Describe exchange epthilium
The exchange epithelia are composed of
very thin, flattened cells that allow gases (CO2 and O2) to pass
rapidly across the epithelium. In capillaries, gaps or pores in the epithelium also
allow molecules smaller than proteins to pass between two adjacent
epithelial cells, making this a leaky epithelium (This type of epithelium lines the
blood vessels and the lungs,
100
How do histologist classify exchange epehilium
Simple squamous. The one that covering heart and blood vessels is also called endothelium
101
Role of transport epithelia
The transporting epithelia actively
and selectively regulate the exchange of nongaseous materials,
such as ions and nutrients, between the internal and external environments.
These epithelia line the hollow tubes of the digestive
system and the kidney, where lumens open into the external
environment
102
How can transport epithilia can be identified
Simple epethilia, cuboidal or columnar
Has microvilli
Tight to very tight jucntions
have numerous mitochondria
103
Role of ciliated epthilia
nontransporting tissues
that line the respiratory system and parts of the female reproductive
tract. The surface of the tissue facing the lumen is covered
with cilia that beat in a coordinated, rhythmic fashion, moving
fluid and particles across the surface of the tissue.
Simple columnar or cuboidal
104
Protective epithelia:role, of what cells it is composed of, how it can be hardened, life span
Prevent the exchange between the internal and external environments and protect areas subject to mechanical or chemical stresses.
Stratified epethilia
Can be strengthened with keratin
Short life span
105
Secretory epethilia: role, types
Can be exocrine or endocrine
To produce and secrete substances
106
Difference between exocrine and endocrine glands
Exocrine: surface of the skin, airways in the lung, lumen of the intestine. usually have ducts to transport the hormone
Endocrine: ductless, produce hormones into the blood
107
What are goblet cells
Single exocrine cells that produce mucus
108
Distinguishing characteristic of connective tissue
Extensive ECM
109
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Ground substance is gel,more ground than fibers and cells, has collagen, elastic, reticular and random and main cell type is fibroblast
Loose connective tissue: skin, around blood vessels and organs, under epithilia
110
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Ground substance:more fibers than ground, mostly collagen and arrangement is random, main cell type is fibroblast
Denses, irregular connective tissue
| Muscle and nerve sheaths
111
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
| More fibers than ground, collagen, arrangement is parallel, main cell types is fibroblast
Dense, regular connective tissue
| Tendons and ligaments
112
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Very little ground substance, no arrangement or fiber type, main cell type is brown fat and white fat
Adipose
113
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Aqueous, no arrangement or ground substance, main cell type is blood cells
In blood and lymph vessels
114
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
| Firm but flexible; hyaluronic acid, fiber type-collagen, main cells types-chondroblasts
Cartilage
| Joint surface, spine, ear, nose, larynx
115
Guess what type of connective tissue is that
Rigid due to calcium salts, fiber type:collagen, main cell types osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bones
116
Difference in arrangement between white blood cells and brown cells
White-single droplet
| Brown-Multiple
117
Three types of fixed cells in connective tissue
Macrophages
Adipocytes
Fibroblasts
118
Matrix of connective tissue can bee subdivided into 2 groups
Grouns substance
| Protein fibers
119
4 types of protein fibers
Fibronectin
Fibrilin
Elastin
Collagen
120
3 types of muscle tissue
Cardiac
Smooth
Skeletal
121
2 types of cells in neural tissue
Neurons and glial cells
122
How do distinguish between skeletal and cardiac muscles
Cardiac- have intercalated disks, nucleus inside the cells , not as flat
123
2 types of cell connections in intercalated disks
Desmosomes and gap junctions
124
As cells mature, they ___
Differentiate
125
What is the name of cells in embryo that are not yet differentiated
Totipotent-has the capacity to form an entire organism.
126
Another name for stem cells in the organism
Pluripotent
127
Why stem cells hold a great promise for medical therapies
1) undifferentiated cells-> can give rise to almost all cell type
2) highly proliferative-> large quantities can be produced for medical purposes
Can be used for damage sin spinal cord, CVD, Alzheimer's
128
Alternative source of stem cells
Adult bone marrow, testis stem cells
129
What is gene recipe for stem cell from fibroblasts
Oct3/4, Sox2,c-Myc and Klf4-. forced expression
130
What are self markers
Molecules on the surface f human cells that are unique to an individual, thus identifying the cell as self to the immune system
131
What is self-tolerance
The ability of our immune system to attack abnormal or foreign cells but spare our own normal cells
132
Non-self markers are
Molecules on the surface of foreign or abnormal cells-> non-self markers
133
Protein channels are used for
Controlled transport of water soluble molecules
134
How is the process of adjusting urine levels work
```
The initial response to cellular
dehydration is release of ADH
ADH acts on the distal tubule of the
kidney to increase water
permeability by inserting aquaporin
channels into cell membranes
Water moves out of the distal convoluted
tubule of the kidney by osmosis
through these channels –
decreasing osmolarity
Overall effect is an increased water
reabsorption by the kidney and a
decrease in urine flow
```
135
membrane receptor function
When bound by a ligand triggers an intracellular signaling cascade that will alter intracellular activities
136
Integral proteins role
binds other
integral membrane proteins
to form cell-cell connections
binds ECM to give
structure to tissues
Involved in wound healing,
angiogenesis, development,
embryo attachment, cancer
invasion
137
Composition of ribosomes
Each ribosome is a non-membranous structure
made of two pieces, a large subunit and a small
subunit; each subunit is composed of rRNA
138
What happens in Parkinson disease
the proteosome system fails and
improperly folded proteins kill nerve cells in the brain that
regulate muscle tension
80
139
Types of chromation
oHfefterochromatingenes
off
Euchromatin-genes
on
140
Mechanism of muscle contraction
```
The myosin heads bend with a
strong force when they bind the
actin filaments
• This pulls the thin filaments past
them
• Each head then release and this
pulls again
• This pulling by the myosin heads
and the sliding of the actin is the
essential movement of the muscle
contraction
```
141
How can you get stem cells
When zygote is formed
OR
Enucleated oocyte (egg with removed nucelus), where the nucleus of the host is put->zygote-> cell division->stem cells
