Slides Week 5 Flashcards
(96 cards)
1
Q
Bonding
A
- The early relationship formed between mother and infant
- Early belief that post birth bonding was critical for later social development.
- It is now thought that attachments are formed with infants through daily interaction.
- Infants are predisposed to respond to human interaction:
- A few days after birth Infants show clear preference for their mother’s face.
- At One year children use their mother’s emotional expressions to guide their own behaviour in ambiguous situations
2
Q
Social Referencing
A
- Relying on another person’s emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation
- Starts at 8–10 months
- Caregiver’s role very important
- Helps evaluate safety and security
- Guides actions
- Aids in gathering information about others
3
Q
Bonding and Temperament
A
The infant’s temperament is determines:
- The type and amount of social interaction in which they engage with others.
- The quality of the bonds established with their primary caregivers
4
Q
Temperament Chart
A
Elements of Personality
- Melancholic
- Choleric
- Phlegmatic
- Sanguine
5
Q
Measure and Observe Temperament
A
- Difficult to define and measure and observe
- No clear-cut distinction between temperament and personality
- Key dimension of personality
- Evident from birth.
- Shapes Attachment and subsequent intimate relationships.
6
Q
Three General Temperament Patterns
A
- Easy (Flexible)
- Slow to warm up (Fearful)
- Difficult (Feisty)
Each individual’s temperament shows their style of expressing needs and emotions
7
Q
Temperament Type - Basic Clusters
A
- Chess & Thomas Basic Clusters
8
Q
Temperament - Australian Study
A
- Sanson, Prior, Oberklaid 1985
- 2,443 representative Melbourne families
- Infants aged 4 months - 8 months
- Four temperaments identified
- Babies rated middle of most of the dimensions that showed difference between easy and difficult
- Easy 39%
- Average 40%
- Slow to warm up 8%
- Difficult 12%
9
Q
Temperamental Differance
A
- Cause of temperamental difference unclear
- Possible psychological basis suggests association between colic, sleep disturbance and temperament classification
- Not related to:
- Birth order effects
- Birth in Rural v Urban environment
- Individual Gender
- Evidence for Cohort difference indicating environmental factors shape temperament
10
Q
Temperamental Difference - Smart & Sanso 2005
A
- Smart & Sanson (2005):
- Compared infant temperament patterns in two cohorts of infants.
- Australian Temperament Project (ATP): commenced in 1983
- Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC): commenced in 2004
- THREE facets of temperament style assessed:
- Approach-Sociability, Cooperation-adaptability, Irritability-soothability
- Findings were that ATP infants scored higher in irritability than LSAC infants.
- Reason:
- Parents of LSAC infants older and better educated.
- Improved personal and social resources (e.g., maturity, income, parent education) for parenting role.
11
Q
Tempermental Stability
A
- Persistences of infant temperament over time is likley but not inevitable
- Mood tone is most likely to be stable over time
12
Q
Mood Tone
A
refers to the overall tone of a person’s feelings
13
Q
A
14
Q
Temperamental Stability - Young, Fox & Zahn-Waxler (1999):
A
- High activity + negative mood at four months (i.e., difficult) à less altruism & empathy at 2 years (i.e., less responsive to mother’s distress).
15
Q
Temperamental Stability - Lewis (1993)
A
- Negative mood tone (frequent expression of intense negative emotions – anger, distress) at 3 months
- Poor cognitive performance at 4 years (even after other variables controlled for).
16
Q
Temperamental Stability - Caspi & Silva (1995)
A
- 800 NZ boys and girls from birth -18 years
- “Lack of control” at 3 years [rough in play (Activity), distractible, hard staying still (Distractibility), dramatic mood swings (Responsiveness)]
- Risk taking, sensation seeking, low regard for authority, negative emotional response to everyday events, enmeshment in adversarial relationships at 18 years.
- Explanation: environmental engineering
- Shy child growing up in extroverted environment = more likely to be rejected
17
Q
Temperamental Stability - Continuity & Change
A
- There are both continuities and change in temperament over time:
- Studies have shown clear longitudinal continuity of temperament
- Explanation: Children as niche pickers – select environments that match their genetic predispositions
- Patterns of interactions lead to same conditions being recreated
- Goodness of fit With child temperament + parenting styles
18
Q
Goodness of Fit
A
- Thomas & Chess 1977
- Degree of overlap between infant’s temperament and parents image of ideal child
- If good fit then continuity of temperament is observed
- If poor fit then Parental effort to change infant can modify initial temperament tendancies
- If modification is successful the discontinuity in temperament is observed
19
Q
Conclusions about Temperament
A
- Biological basis to temperament
- A number of facets/dimensions to temperament
- Children’s temperament matters for their development and well being
- Reactivity/Irritability/cooperation in infancy can put a child at risk for development of behaviour problems (e.g., aggression, hyperactivity)
- Temperament influences development directly and indirectly through in the type of interactions it elicits from others around the child.
20
Q
Attachment Defined
A
- Deep, affectionate, enduring relationship to another individual.
- Bowlby (1969):
- Studies of infants and children orphaned in WWII.
- Infants biologically motivated to form attachments because they ensure survival.
21
Q
Role of the Mother - Bowlby
A
- Studies of institutionalised children in the 1940s and 1950s
- Influenced development of contemporary attachment theories.
- Bowlby: subsequent problems of these children resulted from being deprived of the experience of bonding to a mother.
- Children deprived of consistent care by a mother were:
- Developmentally delayed.
- Showed later forms of psychopathology, e.g., delinquent personalities.
- This hypothesis = Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis.
22
Q
A
23
Q
Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
A
- Bowlby
- Suggests that continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e. mother) could result in long term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant.
- Originally believed the effects to be permanent and irreversible.
24
Q
Role of the Father
A
- Bowlby:
- Institutionalised infants who were also deprived of fathers
- Their later psychopathology was not attributed to paternal absence.
- Initially suggested that fathers are as crucial to their child’s development as mothers.
- However, it also shows that fathers have a unique role in the child’s development.
25
Role of the Father - Peterson
* Father’s role been so downplayed that paternal deprivation is considered “normal”, even for a child in an intact family environment (Peterson, 2010, p. 151).
* Research shows fathers may be first object of attachment for some infants (see Peterson, 2013, p. 158-162).
26
Role of the Father - Schaffer & Emerson 1964
* 60 Scottish infants.
* Even in homes where the mother was the primary caregiver, some infants formed their first emotional bonds with:
* Fathers.
* Grandparents.
27
Role of the Father - Ainsworth
* Study of Ugandan infants
* Fathers were primary attachment figus in 5-20% of cases
* Subsequent researchers interested in examining how fathers might contribute to infant and child attachment behaviours.
28
Historical Research Fathers - Lamb 1977
* Qualitative difference between type of care provided by each parent for infants.
* Mothers → Nurturant acts of parenting, e.g., feeding, changing, dressing, and comforting the child.
* Fathers → Engage in play activities with the child.
29
Historical Research Fathers - Russell 1978
* Russell (1978):
* Fathers devote approximately 13 hours per week to parenting.
* Much of this time is involved in play activities with children.
* This research is 40 Years old!!
30
Contemporary Fathering
* Rochlen, McKelly & Whittacker (2010):
* Increase in the numbers of fathers who choose to stay at home and care for their children, with 65% increase in numbers from 2004-2007.
* However, 50% of fathers reported a stigmatising incident, with 67% of incidents perpetrated by stay at home mothers.
* Australian statistics: 4-5% of two-parent families have stay-at-home fathers (80,000 in 2016, AIFS).
* Come to this role for various reasons, however still face stigmatisation
* Gender role expectations have not changed significantly
31
Attachment Aspects
Bowlby: Attachment behaviour has Four Aspects:
* Proximity Maintenance
* Safe Haven
* Secure Base
* Separation Distress
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Proximity Maintenance
Child maintains close proximity to caregiver
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Safe Haven
Child turns to caregiver for comfort when frightened or threatened
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Secure Base
Child considers caregiver as providing reliable base to come back to.
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Separation Distress
Child is distressed when separated from caregiver
36
Separation
* When infants are separated from caregivers, anxiety occurs
* Three stages of the separation process
* Protest
* Despair
* Detachment
37
Working Model
* Repeated experiences with caregiver establish a Working Model.
* Children Internalise experiences with caregivers and the way they are treated/valued
* Important to overcoming separation anxiety and judging situations
* Based on likely response of caregiver if they were present at the time
* If something goes wrong, knowing they will be protected
* This working model provides a prototype for all subsequent relationships (friendships, love relationships, faith experiences).
38
Comfort or Food?
* Early research on attachment was also interested in the question of what led to an infant developing an attachment to a caregiver.
* Is comfort or food more important?
* This question was addressed in research by Harry Harlow in 1959.
39
Harry Harlow 1959
* His observational studies were conducted using rhesus monkeys.
* Harlow was able to establish that comfort was crucial in establishing attachment.
* Monkeys separated from mothers at birth.
* Raised using two artificial mothers:
* Wire mother that provided food.
* Cloth mother that provided no food.
* Preference for cloth mother, especially when fearful.
40
Harlow - Consequences of No Attachment
Harlow (1959) isolated infant monkeys showed:
* Withdrawal.
* Rocking.
* Huddling.
* Unable to form sexual relationships as adults.
* When female monkeys had babies, tended to:
* Ignore them.
* Abuse them when they became distressed.
41
Consequences of No Attachment - In Humans
* In cases where human children have been denied the opportunity to form attachments, similar negative consequences to Harlow Study have been observed.
* Genie Wiley
* Child of Rage
* Tragedy of Orphanages
42
Later Attachment Research
* Ainsworth (1967, 1978):
* Research with infants and caregivers in Uganda then the US.
* Developed a protocol for the systematic observation of attachment behaviours in the laboratory à the “Strange Situation”.
* This situation escalates stress that infants experience
43
Strange Situation Experiment
8 stages that each increases anxiety
* Mother and infant enter unfamiliar room.
* Mother sits down and infant is free to explore the room.
* An unfamiliar adult enters the room.
* The infant is left alone with the stranger.
* The mother returns and the stranger leaves.
* The mother leaves the infant alone in the room.
* The stranger returns as a substitute for the mother.
* The stranger leaves the room and the mother returns to the room.
44
Attachement Styes
TWO types of attachment:
* Secure - 66%.
* Insecure - 34%.
* Avoidant à Detachment - 22%.
* Anxious-resistant (ambivalent) à Protest - 12%.
* Disorganized (later research).
* Attachment patterns created in part by quality of care given by caregiver
45
Attachment Styles - Secure
* Warm, affectionate, consistent.
* Child welcomes mother’s return and seeks closeness to her (most common)
46
Attachement Style - Avoidant
* Distant, unresponsive, inexpressive.
* Child avoids or ignores their mother when she returns
47
Attachement Styles - Ambivalent
* Intrusive, inconsistent, uncertain.
* Child is upset when their mother leaves
* When she returns the child exhibits anger at mother while seeking to be close to her
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Attachment Styles - Disorganised
* Abusive, depressed.
* Child may approach mother but gaze away, and may show odd motor behaviour and dazed facial expressions
49
Evaluating Attachment Theory
50
Evaluate Attachment Theory
* Attachments may be reversed if initial conditions that give rise to the attachments are changed.
* Interaction of temperament with attachment style
* Child’s temperament may help to shape caregiver’s style of interaction with child
* Attachments styles might define relationships, not individuals
* Context may affect type of attachment behaviour exhibited
* Model of self may be as important as model of others in determining attachment style.
51
Parenting Styles
* Temperament, attachment, and deprivation points to significance of primary caregivers in shaping later personality and behaviour.
* Diana Baumrind’s research on parenting styles and their effect.
52
Parenting Styles - Baumrind 1971; 1991
Australian & European American parents tend to one of four parenting styles:
* Authoritarian
* Permissive
* Authoritative
* Uninvolved
Based on Two Dimensions
* Parental Responsiveness/Warmth.
* Parental Demandingness/Control.
53
Authoritarian Parent Style
* Place high value on obedience
* Relatively strict, punitive, and unsympathetic
* Curb the child’s will
* **High** Control, **Low** Warmth.
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Permissive Parent Styles
* Exert minimal control over their child
* More affectionate
* Lax with discipline
* Give the child a great deal of freedom
* **Low** Control, **High** Warmth.
55
Authoritative Parent Style
* Reason with their children
* Encourage give-and-take and setting limits
* Demands are reasonable and consistent
* Give their child more responsibility with age
* **Moderate/High** Control, **High** Warmth.
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Uninvolved Parent Style
* AKA rejecting/neglecting parents
* Indifferent to their child
* Put their own needs above that of the child
* Do not monitor the child’s activities
* **Low** Control, **Low** Warmth.
58
Children of Authoritative Parents
* High Acceptance, High Control Parent
* Friendly, cooperative, self-reliant, socially responsible children, socially competent
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Children of Authoritarian Parents
* Low Acceptance, High Control Parents
* Unhappy, fearful children
* Have low self-esteem and assertiveness
* Weak communication skills
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Children of Permissive Parents
* High Acceptance, Low Control
* Impulsive children who lack control
* Lack respect for others
* Difficult peer-relations
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Children of Uninvolved Parents
* Low Acceptance, Low Control
* Socially incompetent children
* Immature, dependent, have low self-esteem
* Display antisocial behavior
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Authoritative Parenting Leads to Better Outcomes
* Social competence in middle childhood
* Outgoingness, prosocial assertiveness, strong social responsibility, moral values
* Cultural differences:
* Authoritative parenting rare in non-Western cultures
* Asian/latin cultures: expect obedience; parents have greater authority
* Not considered domineering in the Western sense
* Indigenous parenting practices – child oriented (children’s needs put first), age-integrated (young children active participants of community), autonomy given to children, parents model behaviour
* **Correlational research** – relationship between parenting style and child development a lot more complex
* Reciprocal relationship between parents and children
63
Self and Identity
Explorations of social and emotional development during childhood and adolescence have focused on TWO entities
* Self - All characteristics of a person
* Identity - Who we are, career, beliefs, gender roles
* Understandings of self and identity become increasingly complex with age
64
Infant Self Understanding
* Hard to study babies sense of self as infants cannot verbalise how they experience themselves.
* Research has investigated self-recognition using the mirror self-recognition paradigm.
* Example: Rouge test
* Before one year of age, children do not recognise themselves in the mirror.
* However, by two years of age, most infants can recognise themselves in a mirror.
* Conclusion: self-recognition begins at approximately 18 months of age.
65
Self Understanding in Childhood
By three years of age, children show FOUR forms of self-awareness in language that reflect a sense of self.
* Self-referral, e.g., ‘me want’.
* Possession, e.g., ‘my toy’.
* Self-monitoring, e.g., ‘do it myself’.
* Conscious awareness of body shape and appearance
66
Self Understanding in Middle Childhood
By middle childhood, children have a concrete understanding of themselves manifested in:
* Physical description, e.g., “I’m different from Jennifer because she has brown hair and I have blonde hair”.
* Active description, e.g., self-description in terms of activities, such as play.
* Unrealistic positive over-estimations
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Unrealistic Positive Overstimations
* Represents an overestimation of personal attributes, e.g., ‘I’m never scared’, ‘I’m so strong’
Occur because:
* Children have difficulty in differentiating desired and actual competence.
* Cannot generate an ideal self that is distinguished from a real self.
* Rarely engage in social comparison.
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Self Understanding in Childhood
* By late childhood, children’s self-understandings are becoming increasingly complex
* Although still tied very much to the concrete
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Childhood Self Understanding Includes
* Psychological characteristics - Helpful, mean, smart
* Social description - Girl scout, chess player
* Real v. ideal self - What I can do and what I would like to be able to do. (Erikson Industry v Inferiority
* Increased realism - More realistic about abilities compared to younger childhood
* Social comparison. - Better/worse than peers in certain aspects
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Self-understandings in adolescence are complex and increasingly abstract.
* The revolve around THREE elements:
* Possible selves.
* Identity.
* Self-consciousness.
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Possible Selves
* Erikson (1953):
* Adolescents imagine possible selves.
* Versions of self that adolescents try on for fit, imagining what lives might be like.
* Possible selves may be:
* Positive (what we hope to become).
* Negative (what we fear becoming).
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Possible Selves - Knox, Funk, Elliot & Bush 2000
Most possible selves are positive (hoped for selves), although some may be negative (feared selves).
* Knox, Funk, Elliott, & Bush (2000)
* Adolescents in high school generate an average of 13 possible selves.
* Generate mostly positive selves.
* Females more negative/feared selves for relationships/ interpersonal connections
* i.e., not ever dating, never having children, being a bad mother
* Males more negative/feared selves for occupation
* i.e., getting a bad job, being a loser, not becoming famous
73
Identity
* Erikson (1953):
* Social development across lifespan occurs in eight stages.
* Identity v. Role Confusion is the stage associated with adolescence.
* Changes in identity that occur during adolescence involve substantial reorganisation and restructuring of the individual’s sense of self.
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Identity is Constructed From . . .
* Past experiences.
* Present encounters.
* What an individual anticipates for his/her future.
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Identity Formation
* Identity is developed through the process of individuation.
* Individuation involves the following steps:
* Separation from primary caregivers.
* Dependency shifted onto peers.
* Psychological autonomy leads to a unique identity.
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Individuation
* A process of transformation whereby the personal and collective unconscious are brought into consciousness
* Acheived by means of dreams, active imagination, or free association
* Assimilated into the whole personality.
* It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche
77
Identity Formation
* Some personality characteristics are important for identity formation:
* Self-esteem (encourages risk taking).
* Self-monitoring (encourages sensitivity to social cues).
* Ego resiliency (increases flexibility).
* Openness to experience (expands scope of options that adolescents are able to consider).
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Identity Domains
* Initial domains of identity proposed by Erikson (1953, 1968):
* Vocation (career).
* Ideology (spirituality/faith and politics).
* Gender, sexuality and interpersonal relationships.
79
Identity Status
* TWO criteria essential for the attainment of identity:
* Crisis/Exploration:
* Commitment:
* Four Identity statuses that can be achieved
* Depend on absence or prescence of crisis/exploration
* Depends on commitment to each of the identity domains
* Acheived
* Foreclosed
* Moratorium
* Diffused
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Crisis/Exploration:
* Active examination of possible selves
* Exploring alternatives to self
81
Commitment to Self
* Personal involvement + allegiance to one self
* Personal investment in identity
82
Discuss Identity Statuses
* The identity statuses form a developmental progression.
* Regressive changes, from higher to lower statuses, may occur.
* An adolescent may be in two or three statuses in different domains at the same time.
83
Identity Diffusion
* Not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments
* Individuals who are identity diffused display the highest levels of psychological and interpersonal problems:
* Most socially withdrawn.
* Lowest levels of intimacy with peers.
84
Diffusion and Parenting
* Parenting practices that feature a lack of warmth are most associated with inability to commit, and therefore lead to identity diffusion
85
Identity Foreclosure
* Made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.
* Example: following a career path chosen by parent
* Individuals who are identity foreclosed demonstrate:
* Authoritarian values.
* High levels of prejudice.
* Highest need for social approval.
* Lowest levels of autonomy.
* Greatest closeness to parents.
86
Foreclosure and Parenting
* Parenting features little encouragement of individuality
* Most associated with problems in engaging in extensive exploration
* Associated with authoritarian parenting
87
Moratorium (crisis)
* In a middle of a crisis but their commitment is vaguely defined.
* Adolescents who are in the stage of moratorium demonstrate:
* Highest levels of anxiety.
* Highest levels of conflict over issues of authority.
* Lowest levels of rigidity.
* Lowest levels of authoritarianism.
88
Identity Acheivement
* Undergone a crisis and have made a commitment.
* Adolescents who are identity achieved demonstrate:
* Highest achievement motivation.
* Highest levels of moral reasoning.
* Highest levels of intimacy with peers.
* Greatest reflectiveness.
* Highest career maturity
89
Acheivement and Parenting
* Parenting practices that have been associated with identity achievement have been shown to be:
* Warm.
* Not excessively constraining.
* That is, authoritative.
90
Self Consciousness - Elkind (1978)
* The adolescent experience is characterised by a particular type of egocentrism.
* Adolescents believe that other individuals in their worlds are as pre-occupied with themselves and their thoughts as they are.
91
Self Consciousness
TWO consequences:
* **Imaginary audience**
* Imagines critical evaluation by others
* Increased self-consciousness.
* **Personal fable:**
* Personal uniqueness.
* Invulnerability
* Adolescents feel immune to risks that affect others.
*
92
Self Esteem
* How the individual feels about self.
* Positive or negative evaluation of self;
* Affective dimension of self-understanding.
* Self esteem has two aspects:
* Global - overall.
* Dimensional - specific domains, e.g., mathematics.
93
Self Esteem and Parenting
* Relationships with parents provide foundations of self-esteem.
* Adolescents will have positive self-esteem if :
* Parents use authoritative parenting styles.
* Parents stress:
* Self-reliance.
* Shared decision-making.
* Willingness to listen.
94
Self Esteem and Gender
* In childhood, there is no difference in levels of self-esteem manifested by males and females.
* However, at adolescence, females report significantly lower levels of self-esteem than males.
* Trend continues until mid-life.
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Differences in Self Esteem by Gender
* Females more likely than males to evaluate negatively the characteristics about themselves that they believe to be most important.
* Females rate feared selves as more likely to occur than do males.
* Females’ self-esteem is more vulnerable than males’ in the face of change
96
Conclusion about Temperament
* Research on temperament and attachment demonstrates the importance of **biologically based predispositions** and **parental/caregiver interaction** in social development.
* Strategies that caregivers use to raise children are important in shaping subsequent social development.
* **Biological and environmental factors** interact to produce the social developments of childhood and adolescence in terms of self-understanding, identity and self-esteem.
* These social developments provide the foundations for subsequent developments in vocational choice, gender, sexuality and relationships, and ideological framework
