T3: Society and Culture in Change, 1917-80 Flashcards
(16 cards)
Life of women, 1917-33
From 1917 to 1930, women in America faced significant legal, social, and economic limitations, despite the landmark achievement of the 19th Amendment in 1920, which granted them the right to vote. However, disenfranchisement prior to this meant that women had long been excluded from political participation. Even after suffrage, many laws and societal norms continued to restrict their autonomy. Women were barred from most law courts and universities, and marriage laws often rendered wives legally dependent on their husbands—unable to own property, open bank accounts, or access birth control, which remained illegal in many states until 1936.
In the workplace, gender discrimination was pervasive. Women were paid significantly less than men and were largely confined to low-wage roles such as teaching, domestic service, and factory work. The majority of women worked as homemakers, performing around 50 hours of unpaid domestic labour each week, often without legal or economic recognition. Divorce laws also favoured men, making it difficult for women to escape abusive or unhappy marriages.
The flapper movement of the 1920s challenged traditional gender norms and celebrated greater personal freedom, with young women rejecting the conservative ideals embodied by the Gibson Girl. Flappers embraced fashion, independence, and social change, but were still sneered at by conservatives and represented only a narrow segment of women. For many—especially Black, immigrant, and working-class women—real change was limited. They continued to face widespread discrimination in wages, healthcare access, and social mobility, showing that the promises of the new era were not equally shared.
Prominent female figures in the fight for women’s rights, 1917-80
Margaret Sanger – Birth control activist; founded Planned Parenthood and fought for women’s reproductive rights.
Fannie Peck – Founded the Housewives’ League of Detroit, empowering Black women in economic activism during the Great Depression.
Frances Perkins – First female Cabinet member (FDR’s Labor Secretary); pushed for labor reforms like the minimum wage and Social Security.
Eleanor Roosevelt – First Lady and human rights advocate; promoted women’s roles in politics and helped draft the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Betty Friedan – Wrote The Feminine Mystique (1963), sparking second-wave feminism; co-founded NOW (National Organization for Women).
Phyllis Schlafly – Anti-feminist leader; campaigned against the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) and promoted traditional gender roles. Eagle forum had 50k memebrs. STOP cmapaign.
Ti-Grace Atkinson – Radical feminist; broke with NOW to form The Feminists, advocating for complete gender equality, including abolishing marriage.
Jo Freeman – Feminist writer and activist; key figure in women’s liberation, documented feminist movements and fought for political representation.
Billie Jean King: Billie Jean King was a trailblazing tennis champion and key advocate for women’s rights, best known for defeating Bobby Riggs in the 1973 “Battle of the Sexes,” a symbolic victory against sexism in sport. She founded the Women’s Tennis Association and fought for equal prize money, leading the U.S. Open to become the first major tournament to offer it in 1973. King also supported Title IX, helping to expand opportunities for women in education and sport. Her activism reshaped perceptions of women in athletics and advanced gender equality.
Impact of the Great Depression on women’s rights
Job Discrimination – Many believed women (especially married ones) “stole” jobs from men, leading to firings and bans on hiring women. First fired, last hired pricniple.
Increased Labor Force Participation – Poor women, especially Black and immigrant women, took low-wage jobs (domestic work, factories) out of necessity.
New Deal Reforms – Frances Perkins (first female Cabinet member) helped pass labor protections, but many excluded domestic/agricultural workers (disproportionately women of color). She passed legislation advocating for a 40 hur working week, bminimum wage.
Declining Birth Rates – Economic hardship delayed marriage and childbirth, indirectly fueling later feminist arguments about women’s autonomy.
Many women became the sole breadwinners during the Great Depression, as men working in manufacturing and agriculture often lost their jobs. However, the New Deal prioritised men: key programmes like the PWA, WPA, and CCC were designed for only one eligible worker per household and overwhelmingly excluded women from employment opportunities. Additionally, the National Recovery Administration (NRA) permitted unequal pay between genders, reinforcing systemic discrimination in the workplace.
Impact of the Second World War women’s rights
Rosie the Riveter & Workforce Surge – Millions of women (6+ million in war industries) took “men’s jobs,” proving their capability. They worked in insdustried neerver previously before, such as the Womens land Army, the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP), shoiwng a shift in the gender norms, in a socially accepting way, as it was seen as patriotic to help the country.
Temporary Gains – Wages rose, childcare expanded through the Lnaham avt 1941 which provided childcare to 130k woemn, and therefore allowed them to pruseu emplpoyment, but post-war propaganda pushed women back into homemaking.
Racial Divisions – White women benefited most; Black/Hispanic women faced segregation even in war jobs. Desgergation of the defence indsuitry also led to white and coloured woemn working together, through this was not wiothout hisotility or racism.
However, in the long term, after the war, women were expected to give up their jobs to make way for returning men, despite three-quarters being reluctant to do so. Notably, half of all married women left the workforce. This exposed a sharp contradiction between the temporary wartime expansion of women’s roles and the post-war push to return them to domesticity. The frustration and disillusionment this created helped fuel feminist anger and ultimately contributed to the rise of feminist movements and mobilisation in the decades that followed.
The impact of suburbia on woemn, 1941-60
The rise of suburbia in the 1940s–1960s reinforced traditional gender roles, trapping many white middle-class women in a cycle of domesticity that helped spark the feminist revolt of the 1960s. After WWII, government policies and the rapid growth of suburban communities promoted the nuclear family ideal, urging women to leave wartime jobs and embrace homemaking. Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963) famously described this as “the problem that has no name”—the profound dissatisfaction of educated women confined to housework and child-rearing, denied career opportunities and intellectual fulfilment. Suburban isolation, lack of economic independence, and pressure to conform to the “happy housewife” ideal created a paradox: postwar prosperity offered comfort and stability but came at the cost of women’s autonomy. These conditions laid the groundwork for second-wave feminism, as women increasingly organised to challenge inequality in the workplace, education, and reproductive rights. By 1960, 33% of Americans lived in suburbs. While suburban life symbolised the American Dream, for many white middle-class women it became a gilded cage. Meanwhile, for many BAME women still excluded from such opportunities, it remained an unattainable ideal.
Key Legislation, Organisations and Activists in Women’s Rights 1961-80
- Publication of The Feminine Mystique (1963) – Betty Friedan’s book exposed the dissatisfaction of suburban housewives, sparking second-wave feminism.
- JFKS the presidents commission of the the enquiry on the status of women, headed by eleanour rooselvelt
- 1963 Equal pay act
- Civil Rights Act (1964) – Title VII banned employment discrimination by sex, though enforcement was weak until feminist pressure.
- National Organization for Women (NOW) Founded (1966) – First major feminist organization, advocating for workplace equality, abortion rights, and the ERA.
- Miss America Protest (1968) – Radical feminists threw bras, makeup, and girdles into a “Freedom Trash Can,” symbolizing rejection of beauty standards. Threw stink bombs, part of the radical feminist mvoement
- Roe v. Wade (1973) – Legalized abortion, a landmark victory for reproductive rights.
- Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) Campaign (1972–1982) – Passed Congress but failed to be ratified by enough states due to conservative opposition.
- International Women’s Year (1975) – UN conference boosted global feminist solidarity.
- 1970 womens strike for eqality in pay in new york city drew in throusands of marchers, with the slogan “dont iron while the strike is hot” , memebership fo the organisation grww by 50% as a result of the mvoement.
Major Organizations:
NOW (1966) – Pushed for legal equality, workplace reforms, and the ERA.
Women’s Liberation Front (WOMEN, 1968) – Organized protests against sexist media and policies. Their statement of prupose outlined their committement to takcle sexism, dmsigoyny in the workplace and ein education, and for repreroductive freedosm.
National Women’s Political Caucus (1971) – Worked to elect feminist women to office.
Rafial deminist organisation of New York critical of mainstream feminism and pron.
1969 WOmens equity league established
Key Actions & Tactics:
Consciousness-raising groups – Women shared personal experiences to expose systemic sexism.
Protests & sit-ins – Targeting sexist workplaces, media, and government policies.
Underground abortion networks – Pre-Roe, groups like Jane Collective helped women access safe abortions.
Media campaigns – Magazines like Ms. (1971) spread feminist ideas.
Major Figures:
Betty Friedan – Author and NOW co-founder.
Gloria Steinem – Journalist and Ms. magazine founder
Kate Millett – Wrote Sexual Politics (1970), critiquing patriarchy in literature.
Phyllis Schlafly – Anti-feminist leader who defeated the ERA.
Jo freeman: Wrote the voice of the woemns liberation mmovement discussing radical feminism
Successes and limitations of the feminist mvoement
SUCCESSES
1. Legal & Workplace Reforms: Title VII (1964) – Banned employment discrimination based on sex. Title IX (1972) – Prohibited sex discrimination in education (transforming women’s sports and academia). Roe v. Wade (1973) – Legalized abortion (though later overturned in 2022).
2. Cultural Shifts: Challenged traditional gender roles in media, marriage, and careers. “The Personal is Political” – Made issues like domestic violence and reproductive rights public debates. Increased female enrollment in higher education and male-dominated fields (law, medicine).
3. Political Representation: National Women’s Political Caucus (1971) pushed for gender parity in government.
4. Greater legisaltive changes and political consciousness of woemn
LIMITATIONS
1. Exclusion of Marginalized Women: Early feminism focused on white, middle-class women, ignoring race, class, and LGBTQ+ issues.
2. Backlash & Unfinished Reforms: ERA Failed (1982) – Fell 3 states short of ratification due to Phyllis Schlafly’s campaign. Thje conservative backlash of the 70s meant that 50k joined her eagle forum oppositng the ratification of the ERA.
3. Contuned ineuqality: abortion Access – Even post-Roe, poor and rural women faced barriers. “Glass Ceiling” – Workplace equality improved, but wage gaps and leadership roles lagged.
4. Radical vs. liberal feminists clashed over tactics (e.g., lesbian separatism vs. mainstream reform).
5. Limited Economic Gains: Women still shouldered most unpaid domestic labor (“second shift”). Welfare and childcare policies remained inadequate, especially for working-class women.
History of US immigration pre 1917
The United States was long seen as a “nation of immigrants,” with an open-door policy that reached its peak in 1907, when 1.2 million immigrants arrived—mostly from Northern and Western Europe. Most were processed at Ellis Island and only denied entry if they were disabled, impoverished, had criminal records, or were Chinese, following the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, the first major federal restriction on immigration.
However, rising hostility from WASPs and groups like the KKK over the changing scale and origins of immigration—particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe—led to the Dillingham Commission (1907–1911). Its 1911 report warned that “new” immigrants were less able to assimilate and posed a threat to American culture and stability. Rooted in pseudoscience and eugenic ideas, the report promoted racial hierarchies and social Darwinism. It framed immigrants as the cause of poverty, crime, and falling wages, while ignoring systemic labour exploitation. Reinforced nativist and restrictionist views. Promoted eugenics-influenced theories that linked immigration to crime, poverty, and racial decline.
The findings of the commission laid the ideological groundwork for restrictive legislation, including the Emergency Quota Act (1921) and the Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson-Reed Act). These laws introduced strict quotas based on national origin, severely limiting immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe and effectively banning immigration from Asia.
These policies institutionalised xenophobia, discrimination, and “scientific racism” in U.S. immigration law for decades. While immigrants had been vital to industrialisation and American growth, they were scapegoated and excluded.
Legislation and social attitudes towards immigration, 1917-20s
Legislation
1. Immigration Act of 1917 (Barred Zone Act)
This law banned nearly all Asian immigration by creating an “Asiatic Barred Zone” (excluding Japan and the Philippines). It also introduced a literacy test for immigrants and expanded exclusions for “undesirables” (e.g., anarchists, the poor). The act reflected growing nativism and racism, especially against Chinese and Indian laborers.
- Emergency Quota Act (1921)
The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 was the first U.S. law to impose numerical limits on immigration. It established a quota system, capping annual immigration from any country at 3% of that nationality’s U.S. population in 1910. This favored Northern/Western Europeans while severely restricting Southern/Eastern Europeans, Asians, and Africans. It was a temporary fix, later replaced by stricter laws. - Johnson-Reed Act (Immigration Act of 1924)
The most restrictive immigration law yet, it cut quotas to 2% of a nationality’s U.S. population in 1890—before Southern/Eastern Europeans arrived in large numbers. It excluded all Asian immigrants (even those previously exempt, like Japanese) and introduced the National Origins Formula (fully implemented in 1929) to ensure Northern/Western Europeans dominated future immigration. - National Origins Formula (1929)
This policy made the 1924 quotas permanent, allocating visas based on the 1920 census’s ethnic composition. The goal was to preserve America’s “racial stock” by ensuring 85% of immigrants came from Northern/Western Europe. It remained in place until the 1965 Immigration Act abolished the system.
Social climate
1. The First Red Scare fostered a climate of xenophobia, disenchantment, and hostility towards immigrants, particularly those from Eastern Europe or Italy, who were often associated with communist or anarchist affiliations. The case of Sacco and Vanzetti notably illustrates how heightened fears surrounding their immigrant backgrounds led to their scapegoating and persecution for a crime they likely did not commit.
2. Even at the highest levels of government, racism and xenophobia were evident. President Calvin Coolidge subscribed to the ideas of Social Darwinism, reinforcing the belief in a racial and cultural hierarchy. Herbert Hoover also displayed prejudice, notably in his discriminatory treatment of Italian-American Congressman Fiorello La Guardia, based on his national identity and ethnicity. These actions reflect how Republican presidents of the era reinforced the nation’s isolationist stance and the prevailing racial attitudes of the time.
The expereinces of immigrants 1920s-30s
The melting pot was the prevailing idea that people of different nationalities would assimilate and form a shared, dominant American culture. In reality, however, urban areas informally segregated into distinct ethnic enclaves such as Little Italy and Chinatown. Industrialist Henry Ford actively promoted Americanisation among his workforce—60% of whom were immigrants—by introducing English lessons and encouraging the celebration of national holidays to instil American values.
Social Darwinism, the predominant social theory of the era, asserted a racial and cultural hierarchy that legitimised xenophobia and discriminatory practices towards immigrants. Although most immigrants arrived from impoverished backgrounds and faced significant challenges, some success stories emerged, particularly among Irish and Italian lawyers, businessmen, and politicians, suggesting that upward mobility was possible, albeit limited.
The political influence of immigrants was also significant. Their large numbers made their votes highly valuable, which the Democratic Party capitalised on—especially under Franklin D. Roosevelt, whose inclusive, “colour-blind” policies helped secure a landslide victory in 1932. In contrast, the Republicans’ laissez-faire stance and support for restrictive immigration policies alienated many immigrant communities. The combined effects of immigration quotas and the Great Depression made the United States less appealing to potential migrants, leading to a relative stabilisation of immigration in the 1930s and 1940s.
However, during economic downturns, immigrants were often the “first fired and last hired”, increasing their reliance on welfare programmes. This, in turn, intensified nativist resentment, as many native-born Americans viewed immigrants as burdens or “freeloaders”, further complicating their experience in American society.
The impact of the SWW and immigration
World War II dramatically shifted U.S. immigration policies, easing restrictions for some groups while reinforcing exclusion for others:
European Refugees: The Displaced Persons Act (1948) allowed 400,000+ war refugees (mostly Eastern Europeans) to enter, though quotas still favored Northern/Western Europeans.
Chinese Exclusion Repealed (1943): To counter Japanese propaganda, the U.S. repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act, granting China a small quota (but still banning most Asian immigration). In repsonse to japanese briutality acagisnt chinese.
Mexican Workers: The Bracero Program (1942–1964) brought 4.5 million Mexican laborers for farm/railroad work, but many faced exploitation and deportation (e.g., Operation Wetback, 1954).
Japanese Internment: 120,000 Japanese Americans (mostly citizens) were forcibly detained, while Japanese immigration remained banned until 1952, due the nature of pearl harbour attack.
Businesses owned by Germand and italienas were often boycotted or damagesd and windows smashed.
Germans, Italians and the Japanese became classed as “enemy aliens”
The impact of the Cold War and immigration
The Cold War shifted U.S. immigration policy from restriction to selective openness, aligning immigration with foreign policy interests. During the post-war economic boom, the growing demand for labour—particularly in defence and industry—made immigration more appealing. The existing quota system, originally designed to limit immigration from non-Western countries, began to outlive its usefulness as the U.S. sought to assert itself as a global leader and ideological opponent of communism. This included offering refuge to those fleeing communist regimes, portraying the U.S. as a haven of freedom.
A key example is the Cuban exodus (1959–1962), during which approximately 200,000 Cubans fled Fidel Castro’s communist regime. The Cuban Readjustment Act (1966) granted them a path to citizenship. President Kennedy also worked to dismantle the racially biased national origins quota system, paving the way for reform.
The 1965 Hart-Celler Act, signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson, abolished the quota system and opened U.S. borders to more diverse immigrant groups, particularly from Asia. As a result, immigration from countries like Vietnam and Cambodia surged, with the U.S. accepting 103,000 Vietnamese refugees initially, and over 750,000 Vietnamese living in the U.S. by the late 1960s.
However, not all Cold War-era policies were inclusive. Operation Wetback (1954) exemplified a contradictory approach, as over one million Latin American immigrants—mostly Mexican—were deported under harsh conditions. The derogatory term “wetback” reflected the era’s persistent racism, particularly towards those not seen as politically useful within the Cold War context.
Postwar Cold War Policies: The War Brides Act (1945) let soldiers’ foreign spouses enter, while the McCarran-Walter Act (1952) kept racial quotas but ended outright Asian exclusion.
Nationality Act of 1940 – Required fingerprinting and registration of all foreign nationals, reflecting wartime security concerns.
Bracero Program (1942–1964) – Brought 4.5+ million Mexican laborers for farm/railroad work, but many faced exploitation and mass deportations (e.g., Operation Wetback).
War Brides Act (1945) – Allowed foreign spouses and children of U.S. soldiers to immigrate (120,000+ entered, mostly European women).
Displaced Persons Act (1948) – Admitted 400,000+ WWII refugees (mostly Eastern Europeans), though quotas still favored Northern/Western Europeans.
McCarran-Walter Act (1952) – Ended total Asian exclusion but kept racist quotas; prioritized skilled immigrants and Cold War defectors.
Hart-Celler Act (1965) – Abolished racist national-origin quotas, replacing them with a system favoring family reunification and skilled workers (opening doors for Asian, African, and Latin American immigrants).
Refugee Act (1980) – Established a formal asylum system after the Vietnam War, resettling Southeast Asian refugees (e.g., 130,000+ Vietnamese).
Result: WWII exposed contradictions in U.S. immigration policies—expanding opportunities for white Europeans while maintaining systemic racism against Asians and Mexicans. These changes set the stage for the 1965 Immigration Act’s reforms.
Reasons for shifting attitudes towards immigration
- Post-WWII Global Leadership & Cold War Politics
Refugee Crises: The U.S. admitted displaced persons (e.g., Displaced Persons Act, 1948) to counter Soviet influence and project humanitarianism.
Anti-Communism: The McCarran-Walter Act (1952) prioritized skilled immigrants and Cold War defectors (e.g., scientists, dissidents).
Diplomatic Pressure: Repealing racist laws (e.g., Chinese Exclusion repeal, 1943) aimed to counter Axis propaganda and win allies in Asia.
- Civil Rights Movement & Racial Equality
Growing opposition to overtly racist policies (e.g., national-origin quotas) aligned with the broader fight against segregation.
The Hart-Celler Act (1965) abolished quotas, reflecting demands for fairness from activists and lawmakers.
- Labor Demands & Economic Growth
Bracero Program (1942–1964) addressed wartime labor shortages but exposed exploitation, spurring debates over worker rights.
Post-1965, industries (tech, agriculture) relied on immigrant labor, pushing for flexible policies.
- Postcolonial & Global Realities
Decolonization and rising immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America forced the U.S. to address outdated exclusion laws.
Vietnam War & Refugees: The Refugee Act (1980) responded to global crises (e.g., Southeast Asian refugees).
- Cultural Shifts & Advocacy
Ethnic lobbying (e.g., by Jewish, Irish, and Asian groups) pressured Congress to end discriminatory quotas.
Media coverage of refugee crises (e.g., Cuban exiles, Vietnamese “boat people”) built public sympathy.
Legacy:
The U.S. transitioned from racial exclusion to controlled diversity, though tensions over enforcement and assimilation persisted. Cold War pragmatism and civil rights ideals were the biggest catalysts.
Givenrment policy was crucial in shaping the repsoen to immiragtion as republicans were more likely to restrict it, whereas liberals werre more accepting of multi-culturalism.
Social Impact of the Cinema
The Social Impact of Cinema (1920s–1970s)
Cinema emerged as the dominant form of mass entertainment in the early 20th century, profoundly influencing American society, values, and culture. By 1920, 50 million cinema tickets were sold annually, doubling to nearly 100 million by 1930. Cheap, accessible, and frequent, cinema became a ritual for many, especially during times of hardship. Even during the Great Depression, cinema remained the most bought item, providing an essential escape from reality. The film industry flourished, with 90% of all films in the 1930s and 1940s produced in Hollywood, making movie theatres a highly profitable business.
Celebrity Influence and Consumerism
Hollywood stars became national and global icons, shaping fashion, attitudes, and ideals. Clara Bow, known as the “It Girl,” influenced women’s fashion and behaviours through her flapper roles, promoting consumer culture. Charlie Chaplin and Rudolph Valentino became symbols of glamour and aspiration—Valentino, an Italian immigrant, represented the American Dream in action. Studios like MGM and Warner Bros. tightly controlled the public images of stars such as Greta Garbo and Clark Gable through the studio system, reinforcing aspirational lifestyles.
Celebrity endorsements became powerful tools of advertising. MGM’s $500,000 deal with Coca-Cola for stars to be seen drinking it during interviews helped boost brand visibility and tied consumer products to Hollywood glamour.
Moral Regulation: The Hays Code
In response to concerns about declining morality, the Hays Code was established in the late 1920s and formalised in the 1930s. It censored films that featured nudity, sexual content, miscegenation, and other “immoral” themes. Compliance was essential, as non-conforming films risked being banned or unprofitable. The Code reflected conservative social values of the time and reinforced traditional moral boundaries in American society.
Its eventual repeal in 1966 marked a cultural shift. Post-Code cinema became more daring and socially reflective. For example, Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner (1967) challenged racial taboos by depicting an interracial marriage, aligning cinema with the civil rights movement and broader social change.
Evolution of Film Genres and Their Social Significance
1920s: Silent films and slapstick comedies, such as The General (1926), offered light-hearted relief and spectacle.
1930s: Gangster films (Scarface, 1932) and musicals (The Wizard of Oz, 1939) reflected both the anxieties and escapist desires of Depression-era audiences. Disney films emerged as moral tales for families.
1940s: War propaganda (Casablanca) and film noir (Double Indemnity, 1944) responded to wartime concerns and post-war cynicism.
1950s: Westerns and sci-fi films such as The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) reflected Cold War tensions. Films like Blackboard Jungle (1955) explored teenage rebellion and youth culture.
1960s: Epic dramas (Lawrence of Arabia, 1962) and socially aware films (The Graduate, 1967) challenged conventional values, while spy thrillers like Goldfinger (1964) mirrored the espionage climate of the Cold War.
1970s: The rise of New Hollywood brought gritty realism (Taxi Driver, 1976), while blockbusters like Jaws (1975) and Star Wars (1977) revived cinema attendance and emphasised high-concept storytelling.
As studios shifted focus from quantity to quality in the 1970s, audiences attended less frequently but were drawn to higher-budget, event-driven films.
Shifts in Popular Culture and Media Competition
Other forms of entertainment influenced and competed with cinema:
Radio (1920s–40s) both promoted and rivalled early films, offering home-based entertainment.
Television (1950s–60s) dramatically reduced cinema attendance, prompting innovations like widescreen formats and Technicolor to lure audiences back.
Music and Counterculture (1960s–70s) blurred into cinema, with films like Easy Rider (1969) integrating rock music and reflecting anti-war, anti-establishment sentiments.
Key Statistics: Audience Trends
1920s: Attendance peaked at 90 million weekly during the silent era.
1930s: Dipped to 60–80 million due to the Depression but rebounded with sound films.
1940s: Returned to 90 million weekly during WWII.
1950s: Declined to 45 million due to television.
1970s: Blockbusters revived the industry, with Star Wars selling over 100 million tickets.
The social impact of the radio
- Influence of Radio and Music Celebrities
Golden age iof the raidio durign the 30s and to early 50s. Radios could be bought cbheaply due to mass production, or through hire purchase
1917–1930s (The Rise of Radio & Jazz Age)
Radio Stars: Amos ’n’ Andy (comedy duo) became household names. In 1929 Pepsodent toothpaste sponsroed their show which had 40m listeners, and sales of the toothpaste skyrocketed.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “Fireside Chats” (1930s) showcased radio’s political power. Bank Crisis (1933): After urging Americans to redeposit savings, banks saw $1 billion returned in days.
Woodstock (1969) and protest songs (“Blowin’ in the Wind”) fueled anti-war and civil rights activism.
Father Charles Coughlin’s Radio Sermons (1926–1940): The “Radio Priest”: Reached 30 million weekly listeners on CBS/NBC with fiery populist sermons. Whilst he initially supported FDR (“The New Deal is Christ’s Deal!”), his views became extremist, had 40m listernes and did infleunce FDR re-eelction. Legacy: Radio’s power to sway public opinion was proven—for both democracy and demagoguery. Modern parallels include podcast influencers and Twitter populists.
Music Icons:
20s: Louis Armstrong (jazz), Bessie Smith (blues), and Duke Ellington shaped the Harlem Renaissance. Jazz (Louis Armstrong – “West End Blues,” 1928), Blues (Bessie Smith), Country (Jimmie Rodgers).
30s: Swing music, band music, glebn miller,
1940s: (Golden Age of Radio & Birth of Rock ‘n’ Roll); V-dsics, frank sisnatra , parttiotism, big band music and jazz and pop music, wartime propganda
50s: Elvis Presley (1956 debut) and Chuck Berry revolutionized youth culture.
H G Wells’ War of the Worlds (1938) proved radio’s mass influence.
60s: the Beatles, Aretha Franklin, Jimi Hendrix, and The Rolling Stones mirrored civil rights and anti-war movements.
70s: funk music, glmrock, david bowier and freddie merucury challenegd the norms
- Key Statistics
Radio Ownership:
1920s: 50% of households had radios by 1930, listneed to it for 3.9 hours daily.
1940s: 90% penetration; peak influence during WWII.
1970s: FM overtakes AM in music listenership.
Advents of the TV in the 50s meant that people were only listening to the radio 24 minuteutes on average a day, radio does remain a constant but is by far nowehere as near the populaityy it once had
By 1945, 0.5 of all americans recieved their news on the radio, and ed murrow was highly infleuntial on the raido wheen reprotting the SWW on the front lines
The influence of the television
TV became widespread commercial used in the 50s, fuelled by the post-war boom and greater consumerism and economic spending. 90% of households owned a TV by 1962, and this became 95% in 1970. This led to the creation of TV dinners and national advertisements. PBS was created in 1967, and aired shows such as Sesame Street which taught how to read and count for little children, as well as racial inclusivity.
Political impact:
1. TV PresidentsL Truman was the first TV president, using flipcharts during TV braodcasts. But he appeared awkward and unrelatable. Eisenhower recognised the importance of television in politics, using regular broadcasts, clear imagery like the domino theory, and televised campaigns such as “We Like Ike” to connect with voters, despite personally disliking media appearances.
- JFK and the Power of Image (1960): First Televised Debate (1960): Kennedy’s charisma vs. Nixon’s sweat – radio listeners thought Nixon won, TV viewers favored JFK, proving TV’s visual power. Camelot Myth: TV glamorized the Kennedy family, linking politics to celebrity culture. aPresidents now chosen based ont heri visual appeal and perosnlisty, bnot jus tonly their policieis and skills. 70 million viewers. Of the 4 million viewers that used the eleciton to gauge their vote, 3 million voted for JFK. JFKs marginal vitocty of 118,000 votrs so it is not unreasonable to suggests that the TV debate won it for him.
- Watergate Scandal (1972–1974): TV News Uncovered the Scandal: Woodward & Bernstein’s Washington Post reports were amplified by CBS News (Walter Cronkite) and Senate hearings (broadcast live). “I am not a crook” – Nixon’s televised denial backfired, eroding trust.TV turned Watergate into a national spectacle, forcing Nixon’s resignation (1974) and boosting investigative journalism. ALL 250 hours of the watergate hearings were played live, and this sepctacle unfolded live and direct, fuelling public conscousness of the scandal.
- “CBS Reports: Vietnam in Perspective” (1968) – Walter Cronkite: After the Tet Offensive, Cronkite’s rare editorial declared the war “unwinnable.” LBJ’s reaction: “If I’ve lost Cronkite, I’ve lost Middle America.” TV shifted public opinion against Vietnam, proving its power to challenge government narratives. He also braodcasted the My ;ai massacre, showing how the war was being fought both without honour and in a wasteful and cruel way. In a 1972, Cronkite was labelled as the most trusted man in America.
- Rise of Investigative Journalism & News Media: 60 Minutes (1968): Pioneered TV exposés (e.g., corporate corruption, political scandals). Ed Murrow, host of the See It Now programme in the 1950s, publicly challenged McCarthy during the Second Red Scare, exposing him as a bully and liar, which significantly damaged McCarthy’s credibility and influence.
- Used a a tool for political humiliation: Television became a powerful tool for political humiliation, with the media often undermining presidents by fixating on personal flaws—Ford was mocked as clumsy on shows like SNL amid post-Watergate distrust, while Carter, though scandal-free, was ridiculed for symbolic weaknesses like the “killer rabbit” incident; a stark contrast to earlier media restraint with FDR, whose disability was respectfully concealed, showing that media support depended heavily on perceived administrative competence.
Television transformed American political life by offering live and continuous coverage of major events such as the civil rights protests, the moon landings, and the Cuban Missile Crisis. This unprecedented access brought political affairs into people’s homes, increasing public engagement and awareness. Television also helped cultivate political consciousness through satire and news commentary, making politics more relatable to ordinary Americans.
In the wake of the Watergate scandal, the resulting credibility gap between the government and the public fuelled the rise of investigative journalism. Television and the news media took on the role of watchdogs, scrutinising those in power and exposing governmental failings. Programmes such as 60 Minutes gained popularity for their exposés, helping to hold political leaders accountable.
TV’s influence extended to the very image of leadership. Presidents now had to possess not only sound policies but also visual appeal. The contrast between JFK’s telegenic charm and Nixon’s awkwardness during the 1960 debate exemplified this shift. At the same time, television often prioritised sensational stories over nuanced reporting, contributing to a rise in rumours, conspiracy theories, and political polarisation. While it democratised access to information, it also simplified complex issues and allowed broadcasters to shape public perception through selective framing.
