T1: Changes to the Presidency, 1945-80 Flashcards
(25 cards)
Harry S. Truman (1945-53): Domestic and foreign policy
Domestic:
* Desegregated the military with EO9981 in 1948. Was disgusted that a black soldier upon returning from war was beaten up.
* Proposed the Fair Deal, aiming to expand Social Security, civil rights, and healthcare, though much was blocked by Congress as they did not want another presidency as dominant as FDRs. Severe legislative gridlock
* Pushed for civil rights legislation, marking a major shift in federal policy. Was the first president to recognize the NAACP, and published a report titled “To secure these rights” advocating for anti-lynching legislation and voting equality
* Advocated for workers’ rights but took tough stances against strikes, even seizing industries to prevent disruptions to productivity (railway and coal) and to prevent workers mobilising in the SRS
* Led the transition from a wartime to a peacetime economy, managing inflation and labor strikes
* Implemented the GI Bill (1944) providing education and housing support for returning WWII veterans.
* Opposed excessive government intervention but maintained key New Deal programs.
* Truman veoted 250 congress bills,which overrode him 12 time
Foreign policy:
* Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1945
* Spearheaded the Truman Doctrine (1947), committing the U.S. to containing communism.
* Oversaw the Marshall Plan (1948–1952), aiding European recovery and strengthening U.S. influence, gave $13bn
* Led the U.S. into the Korean War (1950–1953) under the banner of containing communism, claimed it was UN operation. As the first proxy hot war, it was a disastrous for Truman’s reputation
* Established NATO (1949), reinforcing Western alliances against the Soviet Union.
* $400m given to Greece and Turkey, idea of the domino their,
13bn given in the Marshall plan
berlin airlift was credited as a sign of his strength.
China falls to communism in 1949, showing the weaknesses of Truman doctrine
Harry S Truman: Leadership style and social climate
Leadership Style:
* Direct, decisive, and plainspoken, often using blunt language.
* Lacked Roosevelt’s charisma but earned respect for his resilience and honesty.
* To err is to Truman was a common Washington joke, weakened his credibility and presidential strength
* Truman had only been FDRs VP for 3 months before he became president, few Ameicans knew him or related with him
* Had a turbulent relationship with the press, who expected the transparency and openness granted by FDR. But due to espionage and the growing Cold War threat, Truman was very secreattive about his presidential affairs and decision-makihg leading to a climat of hostility. This led to false rumours about the Korean War circulating in the media.
* One of the first TV presidents, but his television presentations with flipcharts made him appear unrelatable with the public
* Strong anti-communist approach reflected the public’s expectation, just his approach to tackling commnism was criticised
* Overrode congressional approval in the Berlin Airlift and the Korean war, showing the expanded powers of the President. However, he was not as powerful as FDR, due the frequent vetoes of Congress (Truman vetoed 250 bills, which overrode him 12 times)
Social climate:
* Economic: America became from a nation of savers to spenders, and Truman had to manage transitioning the economy from a wartime to a consumer one.
* Hostility from the SRS and McCarthyism, loyalty boards, HUAC: undermined the credibility of the government, restoration of Republican Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-61): Domestic and foreign policy
Domestic:
* First president in decades to not preside over war or economic depression, enjoyed a booming eocnomy fuelled by the post-war consumerist boom
* A “modern Republican” that adopted a “hidden-hand” approach
* 1954 the Senate voted to censure McCarthy, Eisenhower was tactical and avoided publicly or directly confronting him as he did not want to inflame his infleunce. SRS slowly dissipates
* Followed a “Middle Way” approach, balancing free-market principles with some government oversight
* Strengthened infrastructure through the Federal-Aid Highway Act (1956), creating the modern interstate system, 41k mile system of 25billion dollars. Highly revolutionary as it created interconnectivity between states and estbalished America as a car-owning nation
* Maintained low taxes and fiscal restraint, avoiding excessive government spending. Balanced 3 of 8 budgets
* Expanded SS, raised the minimum wage from 75c to $1
* The Little Rock Nine 1957: Eisenhower upheld his executive duty to enforce the SC Brown V Board of Education ruling in 1954. He sent in the army to protect the students from mobs, against the racist Governor Orval E. Faubus who resisted desegregation of the school.
* 1957 CRA: It created the Civil Rights Divison in the Justice Department, showing a shift in the federal repsonsibility for civil rights, empowering federal prosecutors to challenge voting rights violations. Not highly effective.
1960 CRA: It advanced provisions to voting rights but issues of literacy tests, poll taxes and KKK intimidation still remained.
Foreign:
* Brought a “New Look” to the military. Cut defence spending, but expenditure on the AIr Force, nuclear weapons and the space race rose
* Advocated for containment of communism but preferred covert operations over direct military engagement (e.g., CIA interventions in Iran and Guatemala).
* Promoted Eisenhower Doctrine (1957), pledging U.S. aid to Middle Eastern nations resisting communism.
* Strengthened NATO
* Ended the Korean War (1953) and avoided direct involvement in Vietnam but supported South Vietnam against communism, by sending advisors
* 1960 U2 spy plane crisis was his only presidential weakness, in which his refusal to apologise led to the collapse of the Geneva Conference in 13 days, which were to be on peace talks and nuclear disarmament.
* Oversaw the creation of NASA 1958 in response to the launch of the Sputnik satellite
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-61): Leadership style and social climate
Leaderhsip style:
* Although seemingly a typical Republican on the surface, Eisenhower was an effective administrator, who presided using what is known as the ‘hidden hand’ approach of delegating, but always having the final say.
* “Modern Republicanism”: was asked by both parties to be their presidential candidate, showing his pragmatic and moderate views. Was not highly partisan, unlike VP Nixon
* Ike, was a dearly loved and decorated war veteran, who led the US to victory in D-day landings, very well-respected compared to Truman’s abysmal ratings
* His presidency was labelled as the Golden Years / the decade of consensus and conformity, enjoyed approval ratings above 70%
* One of the first TV presidents, and harnessed this mass media medium well. Had his appearances televised on programs like The Ed Sullivan Show, even awarded an Emmy for his contribuition to TV news. Pioneering use of television for political advertisements (“I Like Ike”) but was privately no great fan. He reportedly complained about the lengths a former general such as himself had to go to win the presidency.
Social climate:
* Decade of consensus and conformity
* Rise of subrban living, white flight
* Graudal build-up of counter-culture and civil rights activism
* Moderate Cold war tensions, end of the SRS
JFK (1961-63): Domestic and foreign policy
Domestic policy:
* New Frontier approach: “We stand today on the edge of a new frontier, the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils … Beyond that frontier are uncharted areas of science and space, unsolved problems of peace and war, unconquered problems of ignorance and prejudice, unanswered questions of poverty and surplus.”
* Introduced tax cuts to stimulate economic growth, focusing on increasing consumer spending and business investment, espcially with the slow drip towards economic decline in the 60s, whth a short recession (5.5m unemployed)
* Pushed for civil rights legislation and poverty reduction although major reform was stalled in Congress during his presidency. Supported the Freedom Riders
* Representing America’s youth and a ‘New Frontier’, JFK heralded a new age of liberalism and New Left thinking
* Presidential Commission on the Status of Women 1961: created by JFK, headed by Eleanor Roosevelt
* Intrduced the Equal Pay Act 1961 so that women were paid the same wages as men, but was not effective due to its focus on “equal work” rather than “work of equal value,” and its failure to address the underlying structural issues that contribute to the gender pay gap
Foreign Policy:
* Launched initiatives like the Peace Corps (1961) to help with global community development
* Ambivalent relations: time of heightened tensions and fear of nuclear threat, but also of disarmament and detente
* Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1963
* Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Skillfully handled the confrontation with the Soviet Union, preventing nuclear war.
* Bay of Pigs (1961): Oversaw a failed attempt to overthrow Castro in Cuba, which damaged his reputation. Reflects his political inexperience
* Space Race: Committed the U.S. to landing a man on the moon by the end of the decade (NASA’s Apollo program).
* Sent 16k advisors to Vietnam
JFK (1961-63): Leadership syle and social climate
Leadership Style:
* Charismatic, idealistic, and energetic, “Camelot” era of American politics. Youngest to inherit the White House.
* Decisive in crisis, particularly during the Cuban Missile Crisis, yet often preferred advisory discussions over making quick, unilateral decisions. Did not listen to “Hawks”
* Depsite personal scandals he had a high popularity
* Had a strong relationship with the media, using television and press conferences to present his image and policies. Speeches were famous for their rhetorical style and ability to inspire: “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country”
* Both style and substance
* Typified the conventional nuclear familiy of the American Dream. from an elite upbrigning of Irish catholic immigrants, .
* 1960 presidential TV debate: 90% of households owned a TV by this point, and the first televised presiential debate showed the shift in presidents now being a commodity for Americans to consume.
* Marginal victory of 118k votes to Nixon, exempliefied the instrumentality of the TV and media to his success in being able to beat the experienced Nixon
* His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president
* His assassination on 22 November 1963
Social climatye
* Beatnik society, burgeoning sense of counter-culture and the rise of the teen and youths
* A period of dentent and rapproachement with the USSR to an extent
LBJ (1963–1968): Domestic and foreign policy
Social Policy:
* Pushed through the Great Society reforms, a series of domestic programs aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice.
* Signed into law Medicare and Medicaid (1965), providing healthcare for the elderly and low-income families.
* Passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, landmark legislation that advanced civil rights and voting rights for African Americans.
* Economic Opportunity Act (EOA), federal legislation establishing a variety of social programs aimed at facilitating education, health, employment, and general welfare for impoverished Americans. For example the HeadStart Programme, and Job Corps
* Introduced War on Poverty programs, significantly reducing poverty rates during his presidency.
* Food Stamp Act 1964: vouchers for food given to low income families
* Fair Housing Act 1968: prohibited discrimination in housing, addressing the segregation in urban and suburban areas, especially concerning the issue of BA in urban poverty.
* Supproted positive discriminantion / affirmative action to promote minorities and women gaining opportunities in employment.
* Allegations of “one-eyed keynesianism” due to major expansion of the welfare state
* Presided over strong economic growth during most of his presidency but faced inflation and deficits due to the costs of the Vietnam War.
* Advocated for tax cuts, including the Revenue Act of 1964, which helped stimulate economic growth.
* Oversaw the economic expansion of the 1960s, although the later part of his presidency saw economic challenges due to war-related spending.
Foreign Policy:
* Escalated U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War (1964–1969), believing in the domino theory and the need to contain communism in Southeast Asia.
* Signed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964), granting him broad powers to expand military action in Vietnam.
* Struggled with growing opposition to the Vietnam War, leading to widespread protests and a decline in his popularity.
* Advocated for international diplomacy and was instrumental in the passage of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons.
* The quagmire of Vietnam, a war not fought honourably, a conitnuous escalation of conflict
* 1967 Nuclear Outer Space Treaty also signed to prevent nucelar weapons testing in space
LBJ (1963–1968): Leaderhsip and social climate
Leadership Style & Personality:
* Known for his forceful, persuasive style (often referred to as the “Johnson Treatment”), using charm, threats, and personal appeals to get things done. Often micro-managed policy implementation
* Impressive legilslative record, time as Senate Majortiy leader pirmed him for the role of being a skilled politician. Rise of the Imperial Presidency
* Used the JFK grief to propel his legislative agenda
* Balancing both Southern roots and progressive policies, Johnson used his experience to navigate the political landscape.
* LBJs popularity dropped from 70% in mid-1965 to below 40% in 1967
* Often seen as less media-savvy than some predecessors. Walter Cronkite news anchor vitl in determing presidential success (“If I’ve lost Cronkite I’ve lost America”)
* Managed to sell his Great Society agenda, but his approval ratings suffered as the Vietnam War escalated.
Social climate
* Counter culture, Hippies and the New Left
* Most middle class Americans felt that the federal government was
losing its grip, leading to the conservative backlash of theNew Right and the silent majorty
* Burgeoning civil rights movement, and the rise of the Black power movement
Richard Nixon (1969–1974): Domestic and Foreign Policy
Domestic policy:
* New Federalism: aiming to shift power to state and local governments through revenue sharing, rise of “workfare”
* Created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and passed significant environmental legislation, including the Clean Air Act (1970).
* Supported expansion of Social Security and healthcare, but also attempted to curb some Great Society programs
* Focused on crime prevention and law and order, such as the War on Drugs (counter against the Hippies and New Left) but his policies were criticized for disproportionately impacting minority communities.
* Philadelphia Plan 1969: an affirmative action initiative which guaranteed employment rights for women and ethnic minorities.
* Faced stagflation (high inflation and unemployment) during his presidency. Implemented wage and price controls and freezes in 1971 to curb inflation
* Took the U.S. off the gold standard (1971), severing the link between the dollar and gold, no longer a stable currency as before
* 1970 Amendment to the Voting Rights act lowered the voting age form 21 to 18 and banned literacy tests, was codified as the 26th Amendment to the constituition
Foreign Policy:
* Process of Vietnamisation and “Peace with Honour” to gradually wihtdraw US trooops from the war and replaced with woth South Vietnamese ones. However, he escalated them into bombing campaigns in Laos and Cambodia.
* Signed the SALT I Treaty, which capped the number of nuclear missiles each nation had. He also signed the ABM Treaty which limited the development of nuclear weapons.
* Détente with the Soviet Union, aiming to ease Cold War tensions
* Opened diplomatic relations with China (1972), leading to Nixon’s historic visit to Beijing, a major step toward normalizing relations. Was the first president to vist the PRC along with Kissinger, setting the stage for ping-pong diplomacy
* Ordered the bombing of Cambodia (1970) as part of the Vietnam War effort, which sparked protests and criticism (Kent State shootings)
* Oversaw the Paris Peace Accords (1973), which ended U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, but the war continued in Vietnam for several more years.
Richard Nixon (1969–1974): Leaderhsip and social climate
Leadership:
* It is critical not to wholly generalise and determine Nixon’s impact just on Watergate, especially with his very successful first term and his historic election victory
* Nixon was controlling, obsessive, and paranoid, adversarial and suspicious towards both Congress and the media, refered to the press as the “enemy”, lack of transparency
* Nixon was the only president to resign, and he did so to avoid the
inevitable impeachment for perjury to Congress
* Had a strained relationship with the press, frequently accusing them of bias and being hostile.
* Tried to control the media narrative but was often seen as defensive and evasive, particularly in relation to Watergate, directly appealed to the public on TV
* His public speeches and televised appearances were often viewed as stiff, and his media strategy was considered ineffective in the face of mounting scandals.
* Consented to an Elvis Presley request to visit the White House to try and prevent alienation of the youth from Vietnam
* In 1972 he won 49 of the 50 states. He campaigned on people’s fears of drugs, crime and counter-culture
Social climate:
* The Watergate scandal led to the crisis in confidence, where faith in the president was at an all time low
* Nixon was intially elected after being an emblematic symbol of the New Right, which appealed to the silent majority of Americans, who wanted a return to normalacy
* swept to power on a wave of New Right conservatism as a backlash to the liberalism of the Counterculture movement that had stemmed from the New Left liberalism of JFK and LBJ
Gerald Ford (1974–1976): Domestic and Foreign policy
Domestic Policy:
* Focused on restoration of trust in the government following Nixon’s resignation and Watergate scandal.
* Supported civil rights, but his record was seen as less proactive compared to his predecessors.
* Faced stagflation, with high inflation and unemployment, which was a challenge throughout his presidency.
Introduced a series of anti-inflationary measures, including WIN (Whip Inflation Now), a voluntary program encouraging restraint, which ultimately failed to make a significant impact.
* Enacted a tax reduction bill (1975) to stimulate the economy but struggled to contain inflation or boost economic growth significantly.
* Americans stockpiled fueld duringing the neergy crisis, the increase in demand and limtied supplies led to the soaring of enegry prices.
* Had an indecisive and ambivalent stance, was unsure whether to increase or decrease taxes, Senate vetoed 50 of Fords proposed legislation
* Oversees the implementation of the Roe v Wade ruling 1973
Foreign Policy:
* Dealt with the aftermath of the Vietnam War, overseeing the fall of Saigon (1975) and the end of U.S. involvement in Vietnam. Presided over Vietnam Syndrome
* Faced crises in the Middle East, including the Yom Kippur War (1973) and the OPEC oil embargo, which affected global oil prices and contributed to economic challenges.
* Managed the American evacuation from Cambodia and the collapse of Southeast Asia after U.S. withdrawal.
Gerald Ford (1974–1976): Leadership and social climate
Media Relations:
* Calm, pragmatic, and steady, Ford was seen as a unifying figure following the turmoil of Watergate and Nixon’s resignation.
* Tried hard to be relatable (would do regular TV breifings of wearing clothes and hsowing his life NEED TO VERIFY), yet criticized for his perceived lack of political vision.
* Known for his honesty, he granted Nixon a controversial pardon for any crimes committed during Watergate, which many believed cost him political capital and ended his 1month honeymoon in the presidency
* Faced difficulties with partisan gridlock and was often seen as lacking the political skill and charisma to effectively push his policies through Congress.
* Public were diesperate for an uncomplicated and boring president
* After pardoning Nixon his spproval rating snak from 71% to 49% though in the long term it “healed America” by bringing the scandal to a closure
* Media mercilessly repeated LBJ’s joke that “he played football once too often without a helmet”, mocked for his clumisness on SNL
* “No Soviet domination of eastern eurorpe” made him appear foolish and naive.
* His administration was a stopgap for the inevitable anti-republican backlash following Watergate, a lame-duck president
* Served both President and VP without being elected by the electoral college, undemocratic
Social climate:
* Ever deepening economic recession meant he struggled to manage economic affairs
* Vietnam syndrome, crisis of confidence, USA’s military superiority in doubt
Jimmy Carter (1977–1980): Domestic and Foreign Policy
Domestic:
* Created the Department of Education (1979) to improve public education and launched various programs aimed at reducing poverty and promoting energy conservation.
* Emphasized environmental protection, expanding national parks and introducing energy efficiency measures.
* Faced a stagflation crisis with high inflation, high unemployment, and slow growth, which led to economic challenges during his presidency.
* Introduced energy conservation measures, including the creation of the Department of Energy (1977) and energy efficiency standards.
Implemented a National Energy Plan but struggled with its full implementation and public support.
* His administration was also marked by rising oil prices and the 1980 energy crisis, which further hampered the economy.
* Proposed tax reforms, but the economic difficulties overshadowed his policy achievements.
* He injected 30 billion in job creation programmes as a result of stagflation but this was inefficient
* Pardons vietnam draft evaders
* His austerity and de-regulation measures met with hostility, but continued under Reagan
Foreign Policy:
* Focused on human rights, making it a central theme of his foreign policy and domestic agenda.
* Brokered the Camp David Accords (1978), leading to a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel, which was one of his greatest diplomatic successes.
* Faced the Iran Hostage Crisis (1979–1981), in which 52 American diplomats and citizens were held hostage in Iran for 444 days, severely damaging his public image and leading to a loss of public support. 52 Hostages for 444 days. The failure of operation Eagleclaw which killed 8 US servicemen was a national failure.
* Signed the SALT II Treaty (1979) with the Soviet Union, aiming to reduce nuclear arms, but the treaty was never ratified due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
* Responded to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan by boycotting the 1980 Summer Olympics and increasing military aid to Afghanistan’s anti-Soviet rebels.
Jimmy Carter (1977–1980): Leadership and social climate
Leadership:
* Known for his moral and ethical leadership, emphasizing honesty, integrity, and personal responsibility.
* Criticized for his inability to effectively communicate and lead politically, especially in times of crisis.
* His leadership was often seen as overly idealistic and ineffective in dealing with domestic and international crises, particularly with the economy and the Iran Hostage Crisis.
* A deeply religious man, Carter’s Christian faith shaped his policies and his approach to leadership, devoutly moral
* Malaise speech: uninspiring and lacklustre to what the nation needed, out of his depth
Initially had a positive relationship with the media, promoting transparency and an image of honesty.
* The media, inheriting the crisis of confidence and lack of faith of the executive, meant that they hper-focussed on Carter’s weaknesses, ie attacked by a rabbit on a fishing trip. Shows the contrast from the attiudes of the media during FDR who was highly admirable and repspected, and the media did not photograph him in a wheelchair.
* Used television appearances and press conferences to communicate his policies, but his communications often failed to resonate with the public.
* 1976 campaigned that he would ‘never tell a lie’
Social climate:
* Stagflation, national defeatism and doubt, ushers in Reagan
The Second Red Scare 1947-57
- Climate of fear and suspicion was much more susbtantiated due to the real threat of Soviet infiltration (Rosenbergs in the Manhattan project, leading to the Soviets developing their first successful bomb in 1949)
- HUAC: focussed on the trials of suspected communists and had the powert to ruin careers. Was responsible for the trials of Fuchs and the Rosenbergs
1947 the Hollywood 10 had key workers and directors put on trial to interrogate them on suspected ocmmunist sysmpathies. the 10 that refused to stand were blacklisted.
Lotyaklty boards: Truman used an EO to set up LB to invesitgate the political fialiation and associaitions f government wokers. Workers had to swear an oath of allegiance and wrre subject to spying and wire tapping.
Alger Hiss: a primoinent FDR-era offiaicla who was denounced as a communist by WHittikaer chambers, a former CPUSA memeber,. His first was a mistrial, and then he was found huilty a second time, anbd served 3.5 years in prison. shows the political demisse of someone purely absed o suspiciopn.
Mcarhtyism: Sentator Joe Mccarht was the figurehead of the SRS, by alleging he has thr names of 205 communists working i the government. he cpaitalised on the anti-communist moral panic and the number was chnaged to 57. The tydings committee found his eviduence to be unstubtaitated. His radical stance was attacked by murrow in the priogramme see it now. a vociferous campaign against alleged communists in the US government and other institutions carried out under Senator Joseph McCarthy in the period 1950–4. Many of the accused were blacklisted or lost their jobs, though most did not in fact belong to the Communist Party.. His fanantcism nonethless undermined the govenrment crebility and weakned the democrat. eisnerhower allowed the sente to cenaure him, did not deal with him directly
The Korean War (1950-53)
- Invasion of South Korea by North Korea and the USSR, Truman was prompted to help Korea on the basis of the Truman Doctrine.
- Truman repeatedly assured that it would be a limited war and a UN operation
- General MacArthur , a decorate WW2 general, was initially appointed to be in charge of leading the US in the war, but he openly and frequently criticised Truman’s stance on the war. He called to use nuclear weapons and to also invade China, disobeying the government’s policy line. His firing fuelled the Republican backlash, contribuiting to Truman’s poor popularity.
- As the first hot proxy war, there was intense public and media scrunity. 260k americans were committed to fight.
- Media proliferated speculation that Truman was planning to introduced conscription and use nuclear weapons, which was false
- Many lives lost in a war that ended in a stalemate. He left office with 22% popularity rating, the lowest of any president in history
Impact of the Cold War on the US presidency
The Cold War significantly expanded presidential power, particularly in matters of war and foreign policy. As the threat of nuclear conflict and mutually assured destruction intensified, presidents increasingly bypassed Congress in making military decisions and treaties. U.S. involvement in NATO and the United Nations further entrenched the president’s role in global affairs, while the creation of the CIA, which reported directly to the White House, enhanced executive control over intelligence. Additionally, the establishment of the Pentagon and the rise of the military-industrial complex consolidated military authority under the presidency.
Counter-culture in the 60s and 70s
Liberalism: The decade of consensus and conformity ended upon the dawn of the 60s, prompting a surge of liberal thought which adovcated for expanded civil liberties and equality of
opportunity to acheive the Amercan Dream. It rejected the status quo and was opposed by conservatives.
Counter-culture refers to a social movement, often led by young people, that actively rejects and opposes the dominant cultural norms, values, and institutions of mainstream society. It challenges traditional authority, promotes alternative lifestyles, and seeks to bring about social, political, and cultural change.
Hippies: A sub-culture of youths during the 60s and 70s. They rejected capitalism and consumerism, promoting peace and love, espoused anti-war sentiment, promoted sexual liberation and has a psychedelic culture of drug-taking, bolstered environmental consciousness.
Student Activism:
Student activism grew rapidly during the 1960s, particularly in socially liberal states and universities such as UC Berkeley in California. The Free Speech Movement, which began in 1964, focused on political activism, civil rights, and freedom of expression on campus. It reflected a wider surge in political consciousness and civil disobedience among students.
Anti-Vietnam War Protests:
Students became the most vocal opponents of the Vietnam War, especially after President Lyndon B. Johnson introduced conscription, which required young men aged 18–21 to register for military service. The draft disproportionately affected working-class students, while wealthier individuals were often able to obtain deferments through university enrolment or medical exemptions. Widespread protests erupted across campuses.
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS):
SDS, led by Tom Hayden and founded at the University of Michigan, became the leading organisation of the New Left. It called for participatory democracy, civil rights, and an end to the Vietnam War. The SDS played a central role in organising campus protests and rallies across the country.
Key events:
* Summer of Love 1967: The Summer of Love in 1967 was a social and cultural event where 10k of young people gathered in San Francisco to celebrate peace, love, and alternative lifestyles, marking the height of the hippie movement. However by the 70s, overcrowding had led to crime and drug overdoses, and the image of the hippie became tarnished.
* Woodstock festival 1969: a celebration of alternative music, highly anti-establishment, Jimi Hendrix (black NA) and Joan Baez headlined, around 500k people attended
* Kent State University Shootings (1970): During a protest against the Vietnam War and President Nixon’s expansion of bombing into Laos and Cambodia, National Guard troops opened fire at Kent State University, killing four students and injuring nine others. The incident shocked the nation and intensified anti-war sentiment.
* In 1967, “Stop the Draft Week” saw students organise large-scale marches and protests, including the public burning of draft cards as an act of defiance. In 1968, protests at Columbia University over university ties to defence research and issues of racial injustice led to the occupation of several campus buildings and over 900 arrests. In 1970, the Madison Bombing—targeting a university research facility involved in military contracts—caused over $60 million in damage and resulted in one death, marking a radical turn in student-led protest.
The Vietnam War (1955-75)
Vietnam was divided at the 17th parallel, with the communist North under Ho Chi Minh and the U.S.-backed South under Ngo Dinh Diem. In 1964, the Gulf of Tonkin Incident—where North Vietnamese forces allegedly attacked a U.S. destroyer—led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This gave President Johnson broad powers to escalate U.S. involvement without a formal declaration of war.
In 1965, the U.S. launched Operation Rolling Thunder, a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam. Johnson also deployed over 500,000 American troops to the region. However, key events in 1968, such as the Tet Offensive—a massive surprise attack by the Viet Cong on South Vietnamese cities—and the My Lai Massacre, where U.S. soldiers brutally killed hundreds of unarmed civilians, shocked the American public. These events contradicted Johnson’s assurances that the war was being won and exposed the conflict as costly, morally questionable, and poorly managed.
Growing disillusionment led to what became known as the “Vietnam Syndrome”—a deep national reluctance to become involved in future foreign conflicts. Under President Nixon, the U.S. adopted a policy of Vietnamisation, aiming to transfer combat responsibility to South Vietnamese forces while gradually withdrawing American troops. However, this was accompanied by increased bombing campaigns in neighbouring Cambodia and Laos, further demonstrating how deeply the U.S. had entangled itself in foreign wars under the guise of containing communism.
The Watergate Scandal, 1974
The Watergate scandal was uncovered by investigative journalists Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. It began in 1972 when five men were arrested for breaking into the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C. They were caught with surveillance equipment, wiretapping devices, and stolen documents, all part of an effort to support President Nixon’s re-election campaign. The men were linked to the Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) and were nicknamed “the plumbers”—a secret unit formed to stop information leaks following the publication of the Pentagon Papers, which had revealed the extent of U.S. government deception regarding the Vietnam War. Nixon, already paranoid about leaks, adopted a highly suspicious and secretive stance.
While Nixon did not directly order the break-in, he became heavily involved in the cover-up. He attempted to obstruct congressional investigations, silence critics, and conceal evidence. He refused to hand over full recordings from the White House tapes, releasing edited versions instead. His attempts to control the narrative through televised addresses ultimately backfired and increased public suspicion.
In response, Congress established the Senate Watergate Committee to investigate the scandal. In the landmark case United States v. Nixon (1974), the Supreme Court ruled that Nixon must release the unedited tapes. The recordings directly implicated him in the obstruction of justice. Facing almost certain impeachment, Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign from office in August 1974.
The scandal tarnished the entire executive branch. Several members of Nixon’s administration and his Vice President, Spiro Agnew—who resigned earlier over tax evasion—were also implicated, further damaging public trust. Gerald Ford, Nixon’s unelected Vice President, assumed the presidency and controversially pardoned Nixon, which angered many Americans.
Impact:
Watergate triggered a crisis of confidence in the presidency, leading to widespread public cynicism and scepticism about the morality and constitutional behaviour of government officials. In response, the Ethics in Government Act (1978) was passed to improve oversight of political campaigning and financial transparency. The scandal highlighted the vital role of a free press and reinforced the need for executive accountability. “Watergate” became synonymous with government corruption, dishonesty, and abuse of power, casting a long shadow over the American political system for years to come.
Reasons for the crisis in confidence in the government, 1945 onwards
- Media Influence and Scrutiny
With the growing accessibility of television and radio, the relationship between the media and the presidency became increasingly significant. Franklin D. Roosevelt had established a close, controlled relationship with the press, using it to shape public perception. However, this dynamic shifted with later presidents. Truman mishandled the media during the Korean War, which led to increased criticism, the spread of false rumours, and a decline in public support. In contrast, Eisenhower and Kennedy benefited from positive media portrayals due to their charisma and appeal—Eisenhower as a decorated war hero and Kennedy as a youthful, eloquent figure. From 1968 onwards, the media adopted a more adversarial role, seeing it as their duty to expose government deception. Walter Cronkite’s broadcast on the Tet Offensive and the My Lai Massacre shifted public opinion by challenging the government’s narrative on Vietnam. The Watergate scandal, the Pentagon Papers leak, and rising distrust in government deepened the media’s watchdog role. The emergence of 24-hour news cycles and live reporting increased public political awareness and scrutiny. Satirical shows like Saturday Night Live mocked presidents like Ford and Carter, further undermining presidential credibility. - Scandals and Corruption
The Watergate scandal had a seismic impact on public trust in government. Nixon’s cover-up efforts, the involvement of White House officials, and his eventual resignation in 1974 exposed deep corruption and shattered faith in executive integrity. The resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew for tax evasion compounded the perception of widespread dishonesty. Even after Nixon, the scandal’s legacy cast a long shadow, with subsequent presidents inheriting a sceptical and hostile public atmosphere. The passage of the Ethics in Government Act (1978) reflected attempts to restore accountability, but cynicism persisted. - Foreign Policy Failures
Presidential mishandling of major foreign affairs severely undermined public confidence. The Bay of Pigs invasion and Cuban Missile Crisis revealed flawed planning and the risk of nuclear catastrophe. The Vietnam War was perhaps the most damaging. Despite massive military involvement, guerrilla tactics and widespread devastation—including the use of napalm and Agent Orange—led to heavy American casualties and moral outrage. Cronkite’s 1968 documentary famously declared the war a stalemate, shattering illusions of victory. Nixon’s policy of “Vietnamisation” and secret bombings in Cambodia and Laos only deepened distrust. The Fall of Saigon in 1975 symbolised the futility of U.S. efforts in Vietnam and marked a national humiliation. - Economic Decline
The economic situation also contributed to the crisis. Eisenhower presided over a period of post-war economic growth, later remembered as the “Golden Age” of American capitalism. However, the oil shocks of the 1970s, rising inflation, and growing unemployment led to a period of stagflation. Presidents of the 1970s, particularly Nixon, Ford, and Carter, were perceived as ineffective in tackling the economic downturn, which eroded their credibility and damaged public faith in government competence. - Social Unrest and Division
Social upheaval further destabilised the national mood. The civil rights movement, anti-war protests, and the emergence of countercultural movements like the New Left challenged traditional values and authority. Violent confrontations between police and protesters, including the Kent State shootings, intensified hostility towards the government. Meanwhile, the rise of the New Right—fuelled by backlash against liberalism, student activism, and the counterculture—led to further political polarisation. Nixon capitalised on the frustrations of the “Silent Majority,” but this growing cultural divide reinforced a sense of national crisis. - Presidential Leadership and Public Perception
Presidential leadership itself played a central role in the loss of confidence. LBJ’s secretive escalation of the Vietnam War, based on questionable information, created a sense of betrayal. Nixon’s paranoid handling of Watergate confirmed fears of unchecked executive power. Gerald Ford, despite being honest, inherited public scepticism and was mocked in the media, particularly after pardoning Nixon. Jimmy Carter, though elected as a morally upright and humble outsider, was portrayed as weak. His mishandling of the Iran Hostage Crisis, as well as scandals involving his family, damaged his image and effectiveness.
Th Oil Crisises 1973 and 1979
The 1973 and 1979 Oil Crises, caused by OPEC’s oil embargo and the Iranian Revolution respectively, led to a dramatic spike in oil prices—quadrupling in 1973 and doubling again in 1979. These shocks severely disrupted the American economy, triggering widespread inflation, fuel shortages, and long queues at petrol stations. The U.S. economy entered a period of stagflation—high inflation combined with stagnant growth and rising unemployment—which challenged traditional economic policy responses.
For the presidency, the crises significantly weakened public confidence. Nixon struggled with inflation and introduced wage and price controls, while Ford’s “Whip Inflation Now” (WIN) campaign was mocked as ineffective. Carter was particularly damaged, as he failed to curb the crisis or restore economic stability. His televised “malaise” speech in 1979, where he blamed a national crisis of confidence, backfired and further undermined his leadership.
Overall, the oil crises exposed America’s vulnerability to foreign energy dependence, intensified public disillusionment with government competence, and contributed to the political shift toward conservatism in the 1980s, paving the way for Reagan’s election.
To what extent do you agree that the Red Scares posed the greatest threat to the USA in the years 1917-80?
The Red Scares, marked by intense anti-communist paranoia, had a profound impact on 1917-80 America, influencing presidential actions and the domestic climate. By analysing the threat posed by the Red Scares, the Cold War influence, and the magnitude of economic challenges, this essay will conclude that the Cold War had the most defining impact on the US presidency and the nation as a whole.
Following the conclusion of the two World Wars, the Red Scares were periods characterised by extreme anti-communist sentiment and suspicion. The First Red Scare (1917-1920) was triggered by the 1917 Russian Revolution, creating fears of a similar proletariat uprising in capitalist America. Strikes became increasingly commonplace, with 3,600 strikes occurring in 1919 alone, with roughly one in four workers engaging in industrial action. The press sensationalised them as being caused by immigrants, increasing hostility and xenophobia. The Sedition Act of 1918 targeted people who criticised the government, monitoring radicals and labor union leaders with the threat of deportation. The discovery of 36 bombs addressed to state officials led Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer launched the “Palmer Raids,” targeting suspected communists and anarchists through arrests and extradition, highlighting the perceived threat to America. However, the First Red Scare’s impact was limited; Palmer’s prediction of a revolutionary uprising failed to materialise, and anti-communist sentiment subsided until the Second Red Scare. The Second Red Scare, occurring during the early Cold War, had a far more pronounced impact on the presidency and American society. This period saw genuine fears of Soviet infiltration, exemplified by the espionage activities of 8 Soviet spies working within the Manhattan Project, which facilitated the USSR’s development of an atomic bomb in 1949. The “loss” of China to communism the same year further exacerbated public anxieties and undermined confidence in Truman’s policy of containment. In response to apprehension of communism within the government (i.e. the case of Alger Hiss), Truman issued an executive order creating Loyalty Boards to investigate federal employees, showing the extent of public pressure and the diminished credibility of the government. One of the pioneering efforts to investigate communist activities took place under the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), most notably in the case of the Hollywood 10, where famous directors and writers were blacklisted for perceived communist sympathies. Senator Joseph McCarthy’s unsubstantiated claims of 205 communists working in the government further inflamed fears, culminating in a climate of McCarthyism that eroded public trust in government and curtailed civil liberties. Although the Second Red Scare created significant domestic unrest, its long-term consequences were limited compared to the broader scope of the Cold War. Anti-communist sentiment persisted, but it did not dominate American life to the same extent after the Senate censured McCarthy in 1954.
Economic turmoil also posed significant threats to the United States and its presidency. The Great Depression, precipitated by the 1929 Wall Street Crash, left 25% of Americans unemployed at its height. Republican laissez-faire policies, overproduction, and speculative consumer practices (such as their mindset of “buy now pay later” and buying on the margin) contributed to the worst depression in American history. Hoover’s signing of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act in 1930, which imposed tariffs on 20,000 goods, deepened the economic downturn by triggering retaliatory tariffs from other countries and a 66% drop in global trade. Shanty towns of homeless people were called “Hoovervilles”, illustrating the resentment of the American people towards the president. Public resentment grew following the violent suppression of the Bonus Army March, which denied war veterans from receiving economic support to alleviate the effects of the depression, tarnishing Hoover’s reputation. Hoover did eventually try to provide economic support, such as the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to lend money to businesses in need, many of his policies were blocked in a Republican dominated Congress, and was seen as inadequate in providing welfare to the most vulnerable people (which Hoover did not intend to support). This had far-reaching consequences not only for the nation but the presidency, as the 1932 election gave FDR a strong electoral mandate for his New Deal, and ended 11 years of Republican dominance in the executive. Similarly, the economic instability of the 1970s—marked by stagflation—was fueled by the Vietnam War’s financial burden and the oil crises of 1973 and 1979. Oil prices quadrupled, causing rising prices, unemployment, and reduced growth. The Vietnam War had a huge cost of $168 billion, and diverted resources from domestic programs, increasing national debt and undermining public confidence in the economy. Combined with the perceived inadequacy of the Presidents Ford and Carter in managing the economic crisis, public confidence declined further. On the contrary, While these economic challenges had severe short-term consequences, they did not undermine America’s status as a global economic superpower in the long term.
The Cold War, a period of geopolitical tensions between the two superpowers of the USA and USSR, posed the greatest threat to America due to its pervasive influence on domestic and international policies. Beginning with the Korean War (1950-1953), the Cold War thrust the United States into a global struggle against communism. President Truman’s limited war strategy faced criticism, while his secretive handling of the conflict eroded public confidence and spraked false rumours of introducing the draft and using nuclear warfare in Korea to spread in the media. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 underscored the existential threat of nuclear war, as the United States and USSR teetered on the brink of mutually assured destruction in JFK’s administration. Under LBJ, the Vietnam War, a pinnacle of Cold War tensions, consumed presidential agendas, diverting attention from domestic reforms and inciting widespread anti-war protests. Nixon’s policy of Vietnamisation (gradually replacing US troops with South Vietnamese soldiers) and Ford’s execution of the Paris Peace Accords 1973 did end the Vietnam War, but Saigon fell to communism in 1975, challenging America’s military superiority. 52 Americans were held hostage in the U.S. Embassy in Tehran for 444 days in the Iranian hostage crisis 1979-81, and Carter’s failed attempt to rescue them in Operation Eagle Claw led to the deaths of 8 US servicemen. Overarchingly, the Cold War posed the most significant threat, on the basis that it had huge influence on both the domestic and international front, and also played a key role in both the Red Scares and economic troubles of the 70’s. Thus, the Cold War’s far-reaching impact on foreign policy, domestic politics, and societal attitudes made it the defining feature of this era, not the Red Scares.
While the Red Scares created periods of intense paranoia and repression, their impact was limited in duration and scope compared to the Cold War. Economic challenges, though severe, did not fundamentally threaten America’s status as a global power. The Cold War, by contrast, had profound and enduring consequences, shaping foreign and domestic policy, exacerbating economic challenges, and influencing societal attitudes. Therefore, it is clear that the Cold War posed the greatest threat to the United States and its presidency between 1917 and 1980.
How accurate is it to say that the influence of Roosevelt was the main reason for changes to the presidency, 1933-60?
The enduring legacy of Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR)’s tenure had a seminal impact on the role of the presidency and on his successors, Truman and Eisenhower, during the period 1933–1960. By analysing FDR’s legacy, the media’s influence, and the impact of the Cold War, this essay will ultimately conclude that FDR’s influence was the most significant on the US presidency overall.
FDR had a crucial role in terms of domestic policy and expanding the power of the Head of State. FDR played a crucial role in handling the catastrophic effects of the Great Depression by introducing his New Deal, which irreversibly altered domestic policy and laid the foundations for the modern welfare state. The New Deal set a template for future presidents, upheld by both Democratic (Truman) and Republican (Eisenhower) leaders. The unprecedented number of “alphabet agencies” established under FDR aimed to tackle unemployment and restore stability to the American economy. For example, the National Recovery Administration (NRA) established fair practice codes in businesses, while the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) initiated public works programmes, such as reforestation and maintaining public parks. Additionally, the Economy Act reduced government wages by 15%, saving $1 billion, and the Social Security Act of 1935 created a safety net for the disabled and elderly. The establishment of the national minimum wage in 1938 ensured fair pay, a policy still in use today. Both Truman and Eisenhower followed in FDR’s footsteps by recognising the importance of welfare. Truman’s Fair Deal expanded FDR’s New Deal, increasing the minimum wage from $0.40 to $0.75 per hour and expanding Social Security coverage. The Housing Act of 1949 authorised federal funds for slum clearance and public housing construction. Like FDR, Truman also supported trade unions, vetoing the Taft-Hartley Act, which imposed restrictions on union activity. Similarly, Eisenhower, as a moderate Republican, opposed the “Old Guard” Republicans push to dismantle the New Deal. He increased Social Security coverage, raised the minimum wage from $0.75 to $1, and launched the ambitious Interstate Highway System, employing thousands and mirroring FDR’s public works programmes. FDR’s influence extended to the powers of the presidency. He successfully passed 77 laws during his first 100 days, frequently using executive orders and bypassing Congress to implement his agenda. His unprecedented four terms led to the imposition of the two-term limit for future presidents, demonstrating his transformative impact. This legacy influenced Congress’s resistance to Truman’s legislation, in which Truman had to veto 220 bills from Congress, which overrode him 12 times, as they sought to maintain a balance of power and prevent another presidency as dominant as FDR’s. Thus, FDR had the most defining impact on both the policies and powers of the president.
Foreign affairs also significantly shaped the presidency during this period. Following the SWW, America emerged as a global superpower, expected to define the new world order and act as a global policeman. With the threat of nuclear warfare, presidents had to act authoritatively and swiftly, heightening the stakes and pressures of the US president’s office. This is evident in Truman’s handling of the Korean War. He was pressured to take a tough stance on communism, providing military aid and leading the war without seeking a Congressional declaration of war. His approach to foreign affairs through Korea had a defining impact on Truman’s presidency, as the devastating toll of American soldiers led to a steep decline in his popularity, with his approval rating dropping to 22% when he left office. Further, programmes like the Marshall Plan, which provided $13 billion in aid to Europe, and Truman’s decision to intervene in Greece and Turkey to prevent communist expansion highlighted the evolving role of the president as a proactive international leader. Conversely, Eisenhower is remembered more favourably for his foreign policy leadership. He negotiated an end to the Korean War six months into his presidency, and increased the budget for the Air Force and nuclear weapons. He brought a “New Look” to the US national security policy, which emphasised having a strong Cold War stance, investing in nuclear weapons, using the CIA to oppose governments influenced by the USSR, and strengthening relations with non-aligned governments. Thus showing the precedent that the Cold War had on the agenda of the US presidency. While the U-2 spy plane incident was a setback, damaging relations with the USSR and led to the collapse of the planned Paris Summit 1960, his overall Cold War strategy cemented his reputation as a capable leader. Therefore, the Cold War’s demands required presidents to prioritise foreign affairs, often acting decisively without awaiting Congressional approval. Nonetheless, these developments can be traced back to FDR’s decisions, such as authorising the Manhattan Project to create nuclear weapons and committing America to the SWW, which propelled America into its role as a superpower.
The media played an increasingly pivotal role in shaping public opinion and the nature of the presidency during this era, as presidents acknowledged the crucial importance of good media relations. Truman initially maintained good relations with the media, exemplified by his whistle-stop tour campaign of all 50 states, which garnered grassroots support. However, his presidency was marred by a deteriorating relationship with the press. His inconsistent communication style, such as presenting information via unengaging flipcharts, and his secrecy on the Korean War, damaged his public image. Negative headlines, including false reports about conscription and nuclear weapons for the Korean War, further eroded public trust, contributing to his low approval rating. Common anti-Truman jokes circulated around the media, notably “To err is to Truman”, mocking how the president often made blunders. In contrast, Eisenhower effectively utilised the media to bolster his popularity. Known for his calm demeanour and military leadership during World War II, Eisenhower became the first president to hold televised press conferences, presenting a composed and relatable image. His tenure was often referred to as the “golden years” in the media, reflecting his favourable relationship with the press. Despite these developments, FDR’s approach to media relations had the most enduring impact. His fireside chats set the expectation that presidents should maintain an open and communicative relationship with the public, a standard his successors strove to emulate with varying success. FDR set a new standard with his “fireside chats,” which allowed him to communicate directly with the public in an accessible and reassuring manner. These radio addresses fostered a sense of connection and trust, strengthening the public’s relationship with the president, and therefore the public expected FDR’s successors to maintain an open relationship with them.
To conclude, FDR’s influence had the most significant effect on the presidency between 1933 and 1960. His unprecedented four terms served as a template for his successors, shaping domestic policy, expanding the executive branch’s powers, and redefining the president’s role in foreign affairs. While the Cold War and media developments brought unique challenges to Truman and Eisenhower, many of their strategies and approaches were rooted in FDR’s innovations. His New Deal policies, commitment to international engagement, and pioneering use of media communication catalysed lasting changes, leaving an indelible mark on the presidency.
